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Collins Complete Hiking and Camping Manual: The essential guide to comfortable walking, cooking and sleeping
Rick Curtis
Field tested by one of the most respected outdoor programmes in the world, ‘Collins Complete Hiking and Camping Manual’ is the most comprehensive guides available. It is broad in scope, while still focused on the essential skills and information that you need to travel safely and comfortably in any wilderness.Any backpacker knows that space in your rucksack is limited, but on your next trip pack the only guide that you will need. Use it for:• before you start your trip – for deciding on an itinerary, selecting equipment and figuring out what food, clothing and other supplies to pack, depending on whether you are going some where tropical or temperate• once you’re out in the wilderness – for choosing a campsite, setting up camp, navigating with map and compass, identifying trees and plants and preparing meals• if something unexpected happens – for finding a lost person, seeking shelter in bad weather (like thunderstorms) and first aid for common injuriesScattered throughout are Tricks of the Trail – additional tips for successful wilderness camping.CONTENTSTrip Planning, Equipment, Cooking, Nutrition, First Aid, Navigation, Wilderness Travel, Safety, WeatherSample Tricks of the TrailCotton What’s the worst thing to bring on a backpacking trip? Blue jeans. In most climates and environments, you should minimize your use of cotton clothing. Although cotton is comfortable to wear, cotton fibers absorb and retain water. Once wet, cotton loses heat 25 times faster than dry clothing. Wet cotton clothing can be a significant factor in hypothermia (see Hypothermia, page 293).





COPYRIGHT (#ulink_66dd17e8-097e-5502-ae3c-01f8fc067eed)
First published in 2007 by
Collins
An imprint of
HarperCollinsPublishers
77–85 Fulham Palace Road
London
W6 8JB
www.harpercollins.co.uk (http://www.harpercollins.co.uk)
Collins is a registered trade mark of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd
First edition 2007
Copyright © 1998, 2005 by Rick Curtis and Princeton University
Illustrations copyright © 1998, 2005 by Ron Hildebrand and Rick Curtis
All rights reserved.
Originally published in the United States by Three Rivers Press, an imprint of the Crown Publishing Group, a division of Random House, Inc., New York.
The publisher gratefully acknowledges permission to reprint excerpts from Mountain Safety, Research Inc.’s instructions for the Whisperlite stove and for artwork illustrating the Whisperlite stove; Arc’teryx for providing a backpack for the cover art; the Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics for permission to use the Leave No Trace logo; MapTech, Inc. for U.S.G.S. quadrangle maps generated from MapTech Terrain Navigator Pro; Sierra Club Books for excerpts from Weathering the Wilderness, by William E. Reifsnyder; artwork showing the SAM splint from the Seaburg Company; the MapTools UTM grid artwork from John Carnes at MapTools.com; The Physician and Sports Medicine Journal for excerpts from the article “Self-reduction of Anterior Shoulder Dislocation” by Dr. Elizabeth Joy (November 2000); Prentice Hall for an illustration of the Situational Leadership Model from Management of Organizational Behavior by Paul Hersey, Kenneth Blanchard, and Dewey Johnson.
Rick Curtis asserts his moral right to be identified as the author of this work. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the nonexclusive, nontransferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse-engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins e-books.
HarperCollinsPublishers has made every reasonable effort to ensure that any picture content and written content in this ebook has been included or removed in accordance with the contractual and technological constraints in operation at the time of publication.
A catalogue in publishing record for this book is available from the British Library
Source ISBN: 9780007247639
Ebook Edition © JULY 2014 ISBN: 9780007598113
Version: 2014-07-09
CONTENTS
Cover (#u4963aa40-4abf-58b7-8b90-281d4bc84742)
Title Page (#u40d491a9-d6d6-5a96-b65b-857eed49afd9)
Copyright (#ulink_f9b2bd35-e05f-5a18-b3aa-14009b510fa6)
Introduction (#ulink_bee50e72-f93f-56f8-ae81-f6c3e3706f1a)
CHAPTER 1 (#ulink_8dabd13b-9c42-5358-a3d9-ddce4ec2075f)Trip Planning (#ulink_8dabd13b-9c42-5358-a3d9-ddce4ec2075f)
CHAPTER 2 (#ulink_07a2cc96-dbb5-585c-af5f-a38b414cf411)Equipment (#ulink_07a2cc96-dbb5-585c-af5f-a38b414cf411)
CHAPTER 3 (#ulink_a1e181b1-52bf-5573-bb8a-0e95c554fcde)Cooking and Nutrition (#ulink_a1e181b1-52bf-5573-bb8a-0e95c554fcde)
CHAPTER 4 (#ulink_4f43cfbb-c769-5d02-a601-2643cda976d9)Hygiene and Water Purification (#ulink_4f43cfbb-c769-5d02-a601-2643cda976d9)
CHAPTER 5 (#litres_trial_promo)Leave No Trace Hiking and Camping (#litres_trial_promo)
CHAPTER 6 (#litres_trial_promo)Wilderness Travel (#litres_trial_promo)
CHAPTER 7 (#litres_trial_promo)Weather and Nature (#litres_trial_promo)
CHAPTER 8 (#litres_trial_promo)Safety and Emergency Procedures (#litres_trial_promo)
CHAPTER 9 (#litres_trial_promo)First Aid and Emergency Care (#litres_trial_promo)
CHAPTER 10 (#litres_trial_promo)Outdoor Leadership (#litres_trial_promo)
Appendix (#litres_trial_promo)
Bibliography (#litres_trial_promo)
Index (#litres_trial_promo)
Acknowledgements (#litres_trial_promo)
About the Publisher (#litres_trial_promo)
INTRODUCTION (#ulink_014479a8-ba85-5af3-a289-c100e3747492)
Back in 1996, when I was writing the first edition of this book, the World Wide Web was still in its infancy. Since then the Internet has revolutionized the way we search for information and interact with one another. Backpacking and outdoor sports are no exception to this, from finding hiking trails to searching for gear reviews. Backpacking and outdoor recreation, like everything else, have become “information-driven.” Your knowledge base is a key part of maximizing your enjoyment, your safety, and your stewardship of the natural world.
Since the first edition, backpacking itself has changed. Advances in gear design now mean that a seven-day trip no longer means a seventy-pound pack. We’ve expanded our comfort range in all sorts of seasons and learned how to hike thousands of miles with less than twenty pounds of gear in our packs. We can use GPS receivers to pinpoint our exact location and tell us how to hike to our next campsite. At the same time, backpackers face new challenges today. The growth of outdoor recreational sports has put millions of more people on the land. Leave No Trace practices and wilderness conservation have become increasingly important to safeguard the wild lands we all love.
With all our advances in technology, there still exists a set of core skills that people need to travel in the outdoors. We seem to forget that the earliest “backpackers,” in the United States and Canada, from native peoples to wildnerness explorers like Lewis and Clark, didn’t have Gore-Tex, polypropylene ultralight tents, and a gas stove. They survived the harshest conditions with wool, leather, canvas, and yes, even cotton, through their deep knowledge of how to take care of their own needs in the outdoors.
With all these changes it was time to write a new edition of this book. I’ve used the first edition as our main textbook for teaching new outdoor leaders at Princeton University. Other schools and outdoor programs across the country use it as a textbook for backpacking and outdoor recreation courses and as a staff field manual. The first version of this book was a twenty-page manual written for our trip leader back in 1985. The manual continued to grow each year until 1996, when I began working with Random House to produce a book-length version. This new edition brings the book up to date with changes in backpacking and expands the book to cover more aspects of outdoor leadership and education. It’s a great book for beginners who need comprehensive instruction for planning and running their own outdoor trips. For experienced hikers it’s a solid reference manual and refresher for your next trip. There are lots of good backpacking books out there, and I reference a lot of them in the Bibliography. Unlike any other book on the market, Collins Camping and Hiking Manual is designed not only to be something to read on the couch at home when you are planning your trip but also to be a manual you take with you in the field. Every part of the book is designed to allow you to get the information you need as quickly as possible.
DISCLAIMER
As a risk-management expert I know that traveling in the wilderness can be hazardous. I’ve dealt with group emergencies on the trail and had my own share of close calls. By balancing your skills, experience, and gear with the right trip you can have enjoyable and safe experiences. This book is designed to be a resource to help you on your way. It can’t be a replacement for personal experience and professional training in specialized skills such as first aid and CPR. The author, HarperCollins, and Princeton University assume no liability for any personal injury, illness, or property damage or loss that may arise out of use of this material.
Specific equipment, such as stoves and water filters, is discussed in this book. There are many other products that could have been included but were not due to space considerations. The inclusion of these items does not imply any endorsement of these products.


CHAPTER 1 (#ulink_5b962275-9581-59f7-b326-c423030e6895)
Trip Planning (#ulink_5b962275-9581-59f7-b326-c423030e6895)
BASIC TRIP PLANNING (#ulink_7e084a86-2a34-5d6f-9de1-d2fa7ea75651)
Group Size and Ability (#ulink_2846fbae-8ba3-55ed-973d-7f9cc0934982)
Activities (#ulink_4301037c-979f-5852-8fca-c831c16aaf1a)
Location and Weather (#ulink_2d7cbab9-ac01-5c90-bf44-a64b6710f917)
Expect the Unexpected (#ulink_4c7977a6-24ac-5c42-ad31-8fb47ad04b64)
Equipment (#ulink_1278d6a7-b69b-5302-a88f-d6d55e691b27)
Food (#ulink_441c7a83-9e11-5454-a3a5-7ff9a9a216f4)
Costs (#ulink_937e760c-db34-5883-b015-1c7c9e487551)
Skill Development (#ulink_467829dc-0be4-52e3-9628-eb2c218a5619)
TRIP PREPARATION CHECKLIST (#ulink_b9eb71b6-6661-554e-8cb6-ab0a1b9bc1db)
Pre-Trip (#ulink_7d311ab5-10b6-5d25-8685-06e01fbc2cc7)
During the Trip (#ulink_8426ada8-ed69-58db-baaf-1a573c57a82d)
On Your Return (#ulink_5ecf91cc-d86f-5b3c-b3ac-1079292d06d9)
ROUTE DIFFICULTY (#ulink_4b286c49-de44-54b0-b97b-280642fa93d8)
Trip Difficulty Rating (#ulink_8fc50ae5-eb7b-506b-8453-b446258dbbbe)
PLANNING A ROUTE (#ulink_c80a3d19-f30c-58e8-8f5e-aa6d42f51988)
Guidebooks (#ulink_b0a9f869-9a04-5fb3-8644-f5ecf8a8c226)
Travel Logistics (#ulink_666167d1-4f85-56e7-91ff-630f2c2cce39)
Choosing Campsites (#ulink_ba6ef8bd-ce56-5181-97cc-b7c7ba514d16)
Estimating Travel Times (#ulink_1c9d95f0-aeeb-5a82-a75b-bd6ec42d2e58)
Time Control Plan (#ulink_6c4368aa-7df8-5de8-abaa-9dcbdf5ae169)
LONG-DISTANCE TRIPS (#ulink_4ffb693e-c580-5f68-8f04-3fb0ebb4074b)
Resupply Issues (#ulink_3855a8c0-ee28-5c20-9970-5ebb700890c1)


BASIC TRIP PLANNING (#ulink_cd650f7a-60f6-5004-890c-37a5039b87a4)
Planning a trip requires more than simply deciding where to go and when. Whether it’s a weekend trip with friends, a formal outdoor program, or a major expedition, you need to evaluate your trip across a number of categories and develop a solid plan. One or two people may take on the role of planner, or the process of planning can be spread out among the entire group. After planning and running trips for thousands of people both around the United States and around the world, I can tell you that these are the elements you should keep in mind when planning any trip.
GROUP SIZE AND ABILITY (#ulink_d9856904-4793-5a98-ab51-006d9d3b38e5)
Whenever you’re planning a trip, you need to determine if the route should fit the group or the group fit the route. The group may have a range of experience levels, physical conditions, and goals, in which case, your goal should be to plan a trip that is appropriate for everyone. Other times, you may have a specific trip you want to do that may be challenging or require special skills. For this kind of trip, you need to select a group that has the right qualifications to participate. Here’s a checklist of questions to ask when planning a group trip:

What kind of group is it? Is it an informal group of friends or a formal group like an outdoor education program? Are the participants friends, students, volunteers, or paying customers? Formal groups may have specific policies and protocols that must be followed.
What are the goals of each group member? Are people required to attend? (This factor can have a significant impact on how committed or not the group is to the wilderness experience.) Does the group have collective goals?
What is the experience level of each member? What is the average experience level?
Are there people in the group with the necessary skills to lead and manage the group, or do you need to find other people to provide leadership? (See “Outdoor Leadership (#litres_trial_promo).”)
How big is the group?
What is the age range of group members?
What is the physical condition of each member? What is the average physical condition of the group?
Do people have particular health issues that could impact their participation?
Determine the level of experience, physical ability, etc., as much as possible before you set out. This will enable you to plan a smoother and more successful trip. More important, it will diminish the potential for dangerous situations. (See “Safety and Emergency Procedures (#litres_trial_promo).”) Keep the group’s parameters in mind as you evaluate the other categories, thinking in terms of both optimal challenge and safety. Be aware that you will often have a great range of experience levels and physical abilities, so plan the trip at a level that will be fun, educational, challenging, and safe for everyone. Think about the high end and the low end of the experience level and physical condition, and err in the direction of the low end. Gathering physical fitness and basic health information will help you determine different abilities and experience levels (for a sample form, see page (#litres_trial_promo)).
Group Dynamics

How are costs going to be handled—equipment, food, transportation, permits, etc.? If you have to buy gear, who keeps it after the trip? It’s really important to work these things out before the trip, otherwise serious tensions can arise later.
How will leadership be handled during the trip? (See “Safety and Emergency Procedures (#litres_trial_promo),” and “Outdoor Leadership (#litres_trial_promo).”)
ACTIVITIES (#ulink_b91679ff-85f9-556a-83c8-b81286842d60)
When planning the activities for a particular trip, you need to consider the following:

What activity(ies) do you want to do on your trip (backpacking, peak climbing, and/or glacier travel, for example)?
What are the goals for the trip?
What skills will people need? Do they already have the skills, or do they need to learn them?
How do you integrate time for teaching skills with time for traveling?
Once you’ve evaluated the group members’ abilities, you can adapt your goals to an appropriate level. Plan activities that will be both appropriately challenging and safe. Be aware of how mileage, elevation change, and time for teaching and learning skills will affect your route (see “Estimating Travel Times (#ulink_1c9d95f0-aeeb-5a82-a75b-bd6ec42d2e58),”). Start easily and increase the level of difficulty gradually so that everyone can be progressively challenged at appropriate levels, rather than placing someone in a situation that is beyond their abilities.
LOCATION AND WEATHER (#ulink_64c1b89d-0d61-569a-88c1-03c4d834402d)
Research Your Destination

Investigate the availability of guidebooks and maps.
Contact area rangers or land managers to get more information. Inquire about permits required, safety issues like hunting season, and seasonal hazards like wildfires.
Talk with other people who have been to the area before. If possible, check their trip logs, which may have important information not found in guidebooks.
Trip Planning Questions

How long is the trip? Can the trip be self-supporting in terms of equipment and food, or will you need to resupply? How will you handle the resupply—cache items ahead of time, hike out, or have someone hike in? (See “Resupply Issues (#ulink_3855a8c0-ee28-5c20-9970-5ebb700890c1),”.)
How remote is the trip from “civilization” and help in case of an emergency?
What are the trail conditions?
Are there special places you want to see?
Are there places you want to avoid like high-use areas?
Are shelters available on a daily basis, or do you need to bring your own?
Where is parking and trailhead access?
What is the water availability and water quality on a daily basis?
Are there safety issues—hunting season, off-road vehicles, etc.?
Are there any special natural hazards—flash floods in desert canyons, wildfires, etc.? (See “How Accidents Happen (#litres_trial_promo),”.)
What Leave No Trace practices will you need to implement to safeguard the environment? (See “Leave No Trace Hiking and Camping (#litres_trial_promo).”)
Regulations and Permits
Each location can have its own unique set of regulations and requirements. It is important to check these out in detail before you go. Here are some of the possible issues to research:

Are permits needed, and how do you obtain them?
How far in advance do you need to apply for a permit?
Is there a cost for the permit?
Are their any special regulations about rescue? (Some parks, like Denali in Alaska, may require that you pay for your own rescue.)
Are there limitations to group size?
Where is camping allowed and not allowed?
Are there any restricted areas, hazardous zones, protected areas for endangered species, and such?
Are fires allowed? If fires are allowed, will wood be available? Or will you need to bring a stove?
Are there special regulations about Leave No Trace practices such as disposing of human waste?
Weather

How many hours of daylight will there be? Check the Web at sites like the BBC (www.bbc.co.uk) or www.sunrisesunset.com for sunrise and sunset times and average high and low temperatures.
How will the season determine the weather? Are storms or particular weather patterns likely? (See “Weather and Nature (#litres_trial_promo).”)
How will weather affect trip activities? How might it affect the safety of the group?
Will altitude changes during the trip have an impact on weather or temperature?
EXPECT THE UNEXPECTED (#ulink_5ef80b7a-a3d6-5bce-8396-0d512b8138cd)
When planning a trip, remember that the ultimate goal is for people to have fun. Here are some tips to planning a trip that everyone can enjoy:

Make a plan that can be modified during the trip. All sorts of factors—bad weather, changing trail conditions, broken equipment, ill-prepared participants, an injury—may require you to change your itinerary.
Don’t plan long or difficult hikes on every day of the trip. Vary the mileage so that you have some days when you can get a later start or get to camp early.
On longer trips, schedule a rest day every five to seven days.
Make sure that people have some time during each day to kick back—to read, watch the sunset, write, etc.
When hiking at high altitudes, people acclimatize at different rates. You may have to adjust your trip to give people time to properly acclimatize before going higher, especially if people are coming straight from sea level to a high altitude. (See “Altitude Illnesses (#litres_trial_promo),”.)
EQUIPMENT (#ulink_e07eb92f-9c41-5c5e-8876-6f42368a404b)
Once you have determined your trip activities and location, you need to put together an equipment list. Sample equipment lists are provided in the Appendix, but remember that they should be used only as guidelines. Each trip and each person may have special requirements.
FOOD (#ulink_6dcec9f2-082c-54f5-ba1f-1fb5c0fc11ae)
It is important to have food that is both nourishing and edible. On longer trips, with specialized activities, or in different climates (e.g., cold-weather trips), it may be necessary to plan a menu that supplies a specific number of calories per day and stresses certain food groups over others. On any trip, it is essential to be aware of special dietary requirements for each trip member—food allergies, vegetarians, and kosher eaters—and plan a menu accordingly. Check this information on the Fitness and Health Information Form for each person on the trip (see page (#litres_trial_promo)). For food, nutrition, and menu planning guidelines, See “Cooking and Nutrition (#u354b2d89-8870-5e0a-bf5b-975ef6545d32).”
COSTS (#ulink_c00acdb2-2592-5b66-a8bc-bd812fde59b4)
Before going on a group trip, talk about how costs will be distributed. This includes food, fuel, travel expenses, and first aid supplies. You’d be surprised how friendships can get strained because people did not work out the finances beforehand.
SKILL DEVELOPMENT (#ulink_1f1460d4-2192-5c15-aa07-4386088795d3)
Depending on the type of group you’re traveling with, people may have varying levels of experience. There are specific skills that people need before the trip, such as how to pack a pack, and some that need to be taught on the trip, such as how to set up camp or how to use a backpacking stove. There are so many different skills I use on a hiking trip that I find it hard to remember them all—many I just do automatically. Take the time to make a list of these skills so you don’t overlook anything (a sample Teaching Plan is included in the Appendix). If you are a trip leader, or if you’re just traveling with friends who are less experienced, plan time to cover the important subjects both ahead of time and on the trail.
For advanced-level trips, you may need to do a more formal skill assessment. For example, if you are going to be traveling across glaciers, does everyone have experience traveling on snow, handling an ice axe, and being roped up? Will people need to know special techniques like self-arrest or crevasse rescue? Sometimes this assessment is done by reviewing people’s previous trip experiences, or you may have the group go out on a supervised practice trip to review and test special skills.
TRIP PREPARATION CHECKLIST (#ulink_a63b520b-fbed-5069-82d9-3527956f9e8e)
Use this checklist to help organize all the tasks that need to be accomplished before, during, and after your trip. If you are going on an extended expedition, expand the list and establish specific timelines for each task. For example, trips to remote areas might require you to apply months or even years in advance for a permit.
PRE-TRIP (#ulink_4de4a70f-08ed-589f-a863-4a8b6217c15e)
This is a general list of things to accomplish before the trip, in a loose chronological order.

Contact participants and arrange meetings to talk about the trip (activities, experience level, individual and group goals, etc.).
Make lists of necessary personal equipment and group equipment, based on trip activities, location, and weather.
Identify potential hazards: environmental, equipment, and human. (See “How Accidents Happen (#litres_trial_promo),”.)
Have all participants fill out a Fitness and Health Information Form (page (#litres_trial_promo)).
If appropriate, have people turn in a trip résumé to gauge their experience.
Evaluate the physical ability of each participant and develop a route appropriate for all members of the group.
In planning the route, consider transportation time, hours of daylight, time needed to set up camp, teaching time, rest days needed, changes in elevation, and other factors.
Make arrangements for any permits needed.
Develop a menu based on personal preferences and special dietary needs.
Assemble the group equipment and first aid kit.
Purchase and repackage the food.
Meet to distribute the group equipment and food for final packing.
Put together a trip packet with cash, credit cards, vehicle keys, maps, emergency numbers, travel directions, and the like.
Designate an emergency contact (someone who is not going on the trip) and give that person your Trip Logistics Plan (#litres_trial_promo) and Trip Safety Plan (#litres_trial_promo), showing your planned starting and ending points, daily route, campsites, and return time, along with the appropriate emergency numbers and instructions about who to call if you are overdue.
Contact area rangers for last-minute trail information.
Check the weather.
DURING THE TRIP (#ulink_b9d80b9b-6135-5cfd-9024-52432fc19118)

Keep track of all expenses on a Trip Expenses Form (page (#litres_trial_promo)).
Fill out your Trip Log (page (#litres_trial_promo)) as you hike so you have detailed information on hiking times, campsite locations, and water availability for future trips.
Document any close calls, accidents, or first aid treatments. These should be reviewed after the trip. (See “Safety and Emergency Procedures (#litres_trial_promo).”)
ON YOUR RETURN (#ulink_2a6b3054-794e-549f-83e0-8a710bacb240)

Notify your emergency contact person as soon as you return, and let him or her know you have returned safely.
Return any borrowed personal or group equipment.
Clean all gear. Water bottles and water containers should be treated with iodine or chlorine bleach solution if they have contained potentially contaminated water. (See “Water Purification (#litres_trial_promo),”.)
Dispose of rubbish and properly dispose of human waste if you packed it out. (See “Leave No Trace Hiking and Camping (#litres_trial_promo).”)
Dispose of any medical waste properly (see page (#litres_trial_promo)).
Settle up finances.
It’s good to talk about the trip afterwards and see how well it met the goals you set out as a group and each individual’s goals. Are there things that you’d do differently next time? Identify and discuss any problems on the trip, including close calls or accidents. (See “Safety and Emergency Procedures (#litres_trial_promo),” and “Outdoor Leadership (#litres_trial_promo).”)
ROUTE DIFFICULTY (#ulink_ff0d455d-7298-5543-8534-7d21d18585a0)
Whoever decides to plan the route should first determine the physical condition of the people going, which can be difficult. It’s best to rely on some form of objective measurement rather than counting on the “Yeah, I’m in great shape” reply. After reviewing thousands of health and fitness forms from college students I’m still amazed how often people either overestimate or underestimate their physical fitness level. Assessing physical fitness ranges from asking some basic questions about health and exercise activities to administering a required physical exam. Base your degree of assessment on the level of difficulty for the trip: If the trip is of low to moderate difficulty, staying relatively close to civilization, then you’ll have greater resources to fall back on in case of a problem. If the trip is more difficult or ventures into a remote location with limited access for evacuation or medical care, you need to do a much more thorough screening. In some cases, you may even require a specific conditioning regimen. Part of making sure that a person is going on the right trip is giving the individual as detailed information as possible about what the trip will entail. Having someone attempt a trip that is too physically demanding can lead to friction within the group as well as real safety issues.
TRIP DIFFICULTY RATING (#ulink_f2fff97f-c5d3-5106-80b9-55b7fac1ca58)
Wouldn’t it be great if you could look in a guidebook and find out how easy or difficult a particular hike would be? Unfortunately there is no commonly used system for rating trail difficulty. Lots of other outdoor sports, like rock climbing and whitewater paddling, have systems for rating the difficulty of a climbing pitch or a whitewater river. These systems are very useful for matching your skill level with the difficulty of the trip.
There are so many factors that can slow down or speed up a hiker that rating the difficulty of a trail is extremely subjective. Take the Appalachian Trail in Pennsylvania: In the southern part of the state, it is on a fairly flat ridge with good trails, then it moves northward and you enter the dreaded “rock zone,” where the trail requires constant rock-hopping for miles that slows down hikers significantly. I look at the following factors and rely on my own hiking experience as a gauge.

Daily mileage
Daily elevation changes—how many feet/meters you go up or down over the course of the day
Steepness of ascent or descent
Trail conditions (smooth, rocky, switchbacks, off trail, etc.)
Amount of weight the person is carrying, as a percentage of their body weight. (See “The Backpack (#ulink_7fa7d5da-82da-5ec7-988e-b6b374b63b8f),”.)
If you are over 8,000 feet (2,438 meters), consider the effect of reduced oxygen and acclimatization on hiking pace. (See “Altitude Illnesses (#litres_trial_promo),”.)
PLANNING A ROUTE (#ulink_5db87cd5-4d70-53f4-9b72-b0c1e5d840cb)
GUIDEBOOKS (#ulink_f6b5cb1c-0334-548f-86a4-6d90063306de)
I like to start with guidebooks when planning a trip. Since the maps that you would typically take on a trip are pretty specific (and buying lots of maps can get expensive), it’s best to focus on the general area that you are interested in first, and a good guidebook is indispensable. Most guidebooks will give you an overview of the area and some basic maps, so you can get an idea of where to go. A good guidebook will also have specific trails and trips described in detail with mileages, elevation changes, campsites, places to visit, etc. Since guidebooks are so regionally specific, there are lots of different publishers, and finding guidebooks outside your local area can be difficult. Whenever I travel I make it a habit to stop at local bookstores or outdoor shops to see what local-area guidebooks and maps they have. Here are a few of the larger publishers and sources of information you might check out:

Bradt Travel Guides (www.bradt-travelguides.com)
Cicerone (www.cicerone.co.uk)
HarperCollins (www.collins.co.uk)
Maps International (www.mapsinternational.co.uk)
The Ramblers Association (www.ramblers.org.uk)
Rough Guides (www.roughguides.com)
Once you’ve located a specific area, get some maps and start working out the details of your trip. (See “Maps and Map Reading (#litres_trial_promo),”.)

See “Estimating Travel Times” (#ulink_1c9d95f0-aeeb-5a82-a75b-bd6ec42d2e58) to determine how long each day’s hike will take. For each day, establish a Time Control Plan that includes your hiking time along with other factors to calculate your total travel time for the day. During the day, monitor your Time Control Plan; you may have to modify the trip if you are not able to keep to your planned schedule.
Use the Trip Logistics Plan (page (#litres_trial_promo)) to help document your route and to give to your emergency contact person.
As you plan your route, develop a daily evacuation plan and document it on your Trip Logistics Plan. For each day of the trip, know, in general, where you would go to get help in case of an emergency. Obviously, this information will change all the time, but you should know the area well enough to find nearby roads or towns or other resources in case of a problem.
TRAVEL LOGISTICS (#ulink_37e28bbb-d8cc-5e35-a985-fa2ff1db7b71)

Where is your starting point? Where is your ending point? What type of road or other access is there to the trail?
Is everyone traveling together to get to the trailhead or going separately?
Is this a loop route, or an in-and-out route back to your original starting point (A to A), or a one-way route (A to B)? If A to B, do you need to get back to A to get to your car? Can you do your own shuttle? Or do you need to be picked up at B? Are there taxis or public transportation available?
Once you are out on your trip, keep an accurate daily trip log about where you went, what you saw, how long it took, and so on. This will be a great help in planning your next trip.



TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Timing is Everything There are a lot of environmental factors that can impact your trip route. For example, in mountainous regions like the Rockies, afternoon thunderstorms are very common in the summer. If you are going to travel on exposed ridges or summits, you want to plan your day to leave very early and be back down off exposed areas by the early afternoon. Another mountain issue is snowmelt. The stream crossings in parts of the Alps, Iceland and Norway are legendary. During the summer, as the temperature rises during the day, there is greater snow and ice melt. What can be an easy low-water crossing in the early morning can become a dangerous or impassable current by the afternoon.
CHOOSING CAMPSITES (#ulink_fe527234-072b-5093-a82c-97a4ca58c0f5)
Trip planning is often done from campsite to campsite. You need to make sure that at the end of the day, you will have a place to set up your tent or tarpaulin that isn’t in the middle of a bog or perched on a steep rockslide. A lot of campsite selection can be done using guidebooks and maps. Select a site that allows your group to set up a good Leave No Trace campsite. (See “Leave No Trace Hiking and Camping (#litres_trial_promo).”) Unfortunately, sometimes you don’t have the information you need to determine a good campsite in advance, and you’ll have to locate a spot as you hike. More than once, I’ve looked at the map contours and thought, “That looks flat; there must be a good campsite there,” only to discover thick underbrush with no open spaces. Here are some general guidelines for campsite selection:

Water Availability Preferably you want a site near a water source; otherwise, you may need to carry in enough water for dinner, breakfast the next day, and possibly the next day’s hike. Is the water source reliable at all times of year? Is it drinkable or must it be treated?
Campsite Space You want a site that provides enough open space for sleeping, cooking, and washing. (These areas do not have to be right next to each other.) In locations like bear country, it is best if you have a campsite with enough space to keep these areas separate (see page (#litres_trial_promo)).
Campsite Location If you don’t know of a specific campsite, start looking for campsites early in the day. It’s better to stop at a good campsite earlier on and make up the mileage the next day, rather than continue hiking, only to find nothing there—which means either backtracking or continuing to hike on, which could be difficult or even dangerous if it’s getting dark.
Private Land Be sensitive about hiking on private land. In some cases hiking through is permitted but overnight camping is not. If conditions (bad weather, an injured group member) require it, you may decide you need to. If so, recognize that you may be breaking the law and must live with the consequences. Most people are understanding about emergency situations.
Restricted Areas Don’t camp in a restricted area (unless a group member’s safety is at stake). The area is restricted for a reason. If you choose to camp in a restricted area, recognize that you may be subject to tickets, fines, or even arrest. Explain your situation to rangers or other officials and ask for their assistance. Get them involved as allies in helping you in a difficult situation rather than as law-enforcement officials prosecuting you for an offense. In most cases involving safety (like an injury), rangers and wilderness managers are very understanding. They may still require you to move but may be helpful in finding another location.
ESTIMATING TRAVEL TIMES (#ulink_93a31f4e-267c-5d7f-b6dc-1584876111b2)
As part of planning your route you want to figure out how long it’s going to take you each day. Getting a truly accurate estimate of travel times for your trip is difficult since there are so many factors: your physical condition, condition of the trail, elevation gain/loss, amount of weight you are carrying, rest stops, how much you want to stop and enjoy nature, etc. Guidebooks can be a real help here, since some give estimates of how many hours are required for the hike.
Here is a general formula for estimating travel time for backpacking trips. Use this only as an estimate: On a day hike with less gear or if you are going ultralight, you will move faster than with a heavy pack; a packed dirt trail will be faster than sand dunes or powder snow. In a group, people with different physical abilities or of different ages may move faster or slower, changing the pace of the entire group. This gets back to our earlier discussion about physical condition levels. If you have a broad range of physical condition levels, it may be hard to find a pace that everyone is comfortable/satisfied with. Talk about this before the trip and arrive at a decision that the whole group can live with. As a rule of thumb, the larger the group, the more slowly it moves (there are more stops for pack adjustments, bathroom breaks, etc.).
General Travel Time Guidelines

An average person’s hiking speed on generally flat terrain is 30 minutes per mile (1.6 kilometers), so 1 hour equals 2 miles (3.2 kilometers). If you know that your hiking speed is faster or slower than this, adjust the formula.
Add 1 hour for each 1,000 feet (305 meters) of ascent.
Plan about 5 minutes of rest for each hour of hiking. The more people you have, the more rest stops, bathroom breaks, and equipment adjustments there will be, so adjust accordingly.
Calculating Miles per Hour
Divide the number of miles to be hiked by 2. Calculate the total feet of ascent, divide it by 1,000, and multiply that number by 1 hour. Add up all the hours to find the total hiking hours for the day.
(miles traveled ÷ 2 mph) + (elevation gained ÷ 1,000) + (miles traveled × 5 minutes) = travel time
Example: A group hikes 8 miles (12.8 kilometers) in Rocky Mountain National Park. The day includes a total ascent of 2,000 feet (610 meters). The estimated time to hike this route would be:
8 miles ÷ 2 miles per hour = 4 hours + (2,000 ÷ 1,000) × 1 hour [ascent]
4 hours + 2 hours = 6 hours + (6 × 5 minutes for rest breaks) = 6 hours 30 minutes
Calculating Kilometers per Hour
Using the same example, divide the number of kilometers to be hiked by 1.6. Calculate the total meters of ascent, divide it by 305, and multiply that number by 1 hour. Add up all the hours to find the total hiking hours for the day. Using the same example from above, the estimated time to hike this route would be:
12.8 kilometers ÷ 1.6 kilometers per hour = 4 hours + (610 ÷ 305) × 1 hour [ascent]
4 hours + 2 hours = 6 hours + (6 × 5 minutes for rest breaks) = 6 hours 30 minutes
These calculations will give you basic transit time. This doesn’t include longer stops for meals, stops for scenic views and photos, etc. You will need to add time in for these things each day based on information from maps and guidebooks or personal experience with the area. Once you are hiking, check your actual time against the time you calculated for your route. By keeping a daily Trip Log (page (#litres_trial_promo)) with information on hiking times, trail conditions, rest breaks, etc., you can refine your estimates. Use your actual travel time to revise your estimates for the next day of your trip. If there is a significant discrepancy, you may need to revise your route plan.
TIME CONTROL PLAN (#ulink_391d23dc-5726-5dcb-bb3e-b6d9557697e5)
A Time Control Plan is just that: a plan for controlling your time on the trail each day. Creating a daily Time Control Plan will help you get to your planned destination on time and reduce the potential for accidents. (See “Safety and Emergency Procedures (#litres_trial_promo).”)
Here’s an imaginary example. You are planning a summer day hike to the top of an 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) peak in the Pyrenees or Alps in late July. There won’t be any snow on the trails at that time. The hike starts at 2,700 feet (820 meters). It’s 6.25 miles to the summit (10 kilometers). You know that afternoon thunderstorms may occur, and you need to be off the exposed ridgelines of the peak by early afternoon. You calculate that it will take you 5 hours to reach the summit including rest breaks. It will then take you 2 hours to get back to the treeline at 6,000 feet (1,800 meters). You decide to start hiking at 5:00 A.M. Your plan has you arriving at the summit at 10:30 A.M. You plan for 30 minutes for lunch on the summit, with a departure time of 11:30 A.M. to start heading back (an extra 30 minutes of buffer time). This gets you back to treeline at 1:30 P.M. – within your window of safety for afternoon storms. As you can see, this is just a one-day hike and there were lots of time-control parameters.
The following table will help you plan each day. Start with what time you will get up, and then fill in times for each day’s activities. Remember all of the factors discussed earlier to help determine your route, such as participant age, experience, and physical condition, as well as trail conditions, pack weight, and weather. Add up all the times and then subtract that from the hours of daylight.
If your result is a negative number, you’re likely to end up arriving after dark. Look at the route and see if hiking in the dark would put you on a difficult section of the trail. If that presents a problem, go back to the drawing board and make some changes—cut down the mileage, decide if you can hike faster, or get up earlier.
TIME REQUIRED

LONG-DISTANCE TRIPS (#ulink_996b7e3c-03ff-598b-8d51-28669f7d9a9a)
Planning a long-distance trip is a whole different ballgame from a few days or a week. Once you get into multiweek or multimonth trips, you can’t carry all of your food on your back, so you have to start thinking about resupply. There are far too many things to cover about long-distance backpacking in the space provided here, but these general guidelines will get you started, and the Bibliography includes references for long-distance hiking.
RESUPPLY ISSUES (#ulink_87b98fba-64e7-5da3-b016-baf14495b5c1)

Are there resupply locations within a reasonable hike from the trail at the intervals you need? Hike out, buy food, and hike back in.
Can someone meet you along the trail for resupply?
Can you mail items to yourself care of General Delivery? This works for nonperishable food items. Pack food for the period between post offices and mail it to yourself. You’ll need to know where the post offices are and plan how you’ll get to them from the trail. For trails like the Appalachian Trail, all of this information is well documented for through-hikers.
Do you develop some sort of meal rotation so you don’t have to eat the same mac & cheese dinner every night and also don’t have to plan a ridiculous number of meals? Don’t plan too much—many through-hikers find that their tastes change as they go through the trip.
What other items besides food will you need to replenish (fuel, batteries, etc.)? Many hikers handle some of these needs through a “bump box” or “drift box.” They mail things ahead of themselves to the next General Delivery site and can pick up items they need temporarily, like toenail clippers and a razor, then send them on again and not have to carry them.
How you answer these questions is going to have a big impact on both your route and food planning. It might be 5 days between your resupply one week and 8 days the next.



GOING ULTRALIGHT
Many of us go to the wilderness for a sense of freedom. We leave civilization behind and feel this great connection with the outdoors. It’s funny how we also tend to bring everything but the kitchen sink with us in order to feel “comfortable” in the outdoors. All that weight has an impact on hiking speed, your joints, how much mileage you can cover, what you can see, and just the pure pleasure of hiking. Think about those great day hikes you’ve been on with lightweight boots and a small daypack on your back; you just eat up the miles. Then you come back to the same place for a multiday trip and you’ve got 50+ pounds (22+ kilograms) on your back. Where you were flying before, you’re now just trudging along. But there is an alternative. Ultralight backpacking is as close to flying on the trail as you can get, and throughout the book I’ll give you tips on how to incorporate ultralight practices in your backpacking trips. Watch for the feather logo and the GOING ULTRALIGHT heading to help you plan your lightweight getaway.
Ultralight backpacking evolved from long-distance through-hikers on trails like the Appalachian Trail (AT) and the Pacific Crest Trail (PCT). When you’re hiking every day for six months you really come to understand what it means to carry extra weight, and these hikers quickly learn just what they need and what they don’t need on the trail. If you should be lucky enough to speak to people who have completed one of these trails, they will tell you about all the stuff they shipped home along the way because they just weren’t using it.
I’ve always been an “overpacker,” bringing stuff I think that maybe I might need or just want to have. I end up huffing and puffing with a huge pack, and a good 20 percent of it never gets used. During my first trip to New Zealand I had to cut way back on what I took with me, and that changed my perspective dramatically. If you know the area and the conditions you are going to encounter, and if you know your own body (what you need to keep warm, dry, and comfortable), you don’t have to carry tons of gear. There’s been a revolution in the availability of ultralight clothing, sleeping bags, packs, stoves, and shelters, so you can now go out and be comfortable without breaking your back. The person who is perhaps best known for leading this revolution is Ray Jardine, whose book Beyond Backpacking is a classic text for anyone who is serious about the ultralight approach. Ray is a visionary who accomplished his goals of dramatically reducing equipment weight through his own ingenuity. He went from a 75-pound (34 kilogram) pack on his first PCT through-hike to under 12 pounds (5.4 kilograms).
Trained as an engineer, Ray has always been an inventor, so sewing his own clothing, packs, and shelters wasn’t anything new. Most of us aren’t visionaries and don’t have time to sew our own gear. Thankfully, major equipment manufacturers have recognized the demand for ultralight gear and now produce a wide range of products, including clothing, packs, shelters, and sleeping bags. The very lightest gear can be too fragile for commercial production, so the cutting edge of this type of design is often done by hard-core ultralight techies. Check out some of the resources in the Bibliography.
When you are planning a route, you make a set of assumptions on miles per day based on the 2 miles per hour formula (3.2 kilometers). That’s an average hiking speed for an average person carrying an average weight pack. As you drop equipment weight, your daily hiking mileage is going to increase. Experienced ultralight hikers routinely cover 25 to 30 miles per day (40–48 kilometers). So keep this in mind if you are planning a trip with ultralight gear. One caveat: just taking lighter gear doesn’t mean you can hike long distances. Through-hikers have either trained or build up to those mileages. Of course, just because you can hike farther doesn’t mean you have to. You may head to the same place as you would with a heavier pack and have more time for exploring side hikes along the way, a long stop for nature photography and journaling at lunch, etc. If you are planning a trip with friends and some have ultralight gear and others heavier gear, you’ll need to talk about the goals for the trip and how you will manage different hiking paces and timelines.
One important thing to understand about the ultralight approach is that it is both a philosophy and a continuum. The philosophy is to take only what you need and need only what you take. The continuum is your personal choices and strategies. You might reduce weight with clothing, sleeping bag, and backpack choices and still decide to take a tent because it’s black fly season, and for your enjoyment of the outdoors (or so you don’t go insane) you’d like to be in a tent. Someone else might be comfortable with a lighter weight tarpaulin and a mosquito headnet. Here are the principles my friend Bill “Tigerpaw” Plonk suggests based on his ultralight through-hike of the Appalachian Trail.

Take only what you need.
Take the lightest gear that will do the job.
Use gear with multiple functions.
Reassess regularly and discard whatever you haven’t used.
There isn’t one “right” lightweight approach (and don’t let purists try to convince you otherwise), but I can guarantee you, once you start to shed pounds, you’ll never go back.




CHAPTER 2 (#ulink_c3f5cb94-1d06-5b58-933f-021c5c8f5a63)
Equipment (#ulink_c3f5cb94-1d06-5b58-933f-021c5c8f5a63)
EQUIPMENT ASSESSMENT (#ulink_88c44d20-20ad-5ab4-b2f5-544dd87514f6)
Personal Equipment (#ulink_d6381530-4148-5343-9e1b-2f08e51da825)
Group Equipment (#ulink_72b01cb0-1435-5679-b703-9343125992c3)
The Essentials (#ulink_19f16310-c5e1-574a-a021-c6a7a0cac08c)
CLOTHING (#ulink_2814caea-c7a5-539a-94a0-d3a8078ec5be)
Regulating Your Body Temperature (#ulink_17a54b2e-2e73-5b0f-b22d-68cff2a2f09d)
The Layering Principle (#ulink_2d47a7aa-25ad-511e-9893-04c4ad878d6e)
The Clothing Layers (#ulink_85e3078d-8468-5a5e-b313-75fd53fc851a)
Clothing Techniques (#ulink_08664fee-5132-5b81-8beb-44551691ea4e)
BOOTS (#ulink_29736b59-c52b-57fc-a894-f153f405b43e)
What Kind of Boots (#ulink_8e14027a-5502-5007-9979-20665d921c1d)
Fitting Boots (#ulink_8bcee5a7-cbab-53ce-9fc7-5c13b8e15a01)
Breaking in Boots (#ulink_682a09e9-6811-505a-991e-93b0b40bbcf4)
Boot Care (#ulink_b6e55ec0-387b-5572-8235-5ba1983ddb3a)
THE BACKPACK (#ulink_7fa7d5da-82da-5ec7-988e-b6b374b63b8f)
Pack Size (#ulink_f429186d-4c7a-5fbc-ba2c-fd04b420af3b)
Sizing a Pack (#ulink_5a7c4fc4-ca39-56e9-bcba-ebb3e8fdbe59)
Packing Your Pack (#ulink_687df986-b1db-567d-8952-5141e2a6d2da)
General Packing Suggestions (#ulink_3c0baf9a-8a7d-51d3-9319-2d5731a516fc)
SLEEPING EQUIPMENT (#ulink_553ed352-b341-50e7-a336-647c88df4ab9)
Sleeping Bags (#ulink_f4a90c2b-ce72-5a74-94ad-501c3eaffc10)
Sleeping Pads (#ulink_4efc2d7d-d28c-5456-9ffd-0e0825cbf926)
SHELTER (#ulink_c8ed4713-4848-5c89-a479-30a3413a8096)
General Shelter Tips (#ulink_1463ce7f-15c6-5299-95bf-0d80930a67ee)
Tarpaulins (Tarps) (#ulink_ba657b78-edfb-54cd-9347-03f356969099)
Tents (#ulink_b8eeff22-df9b-5dbb-bc1c-f8362a35906b)
COOKING EQUIPMENT (#ulink_bd9a42bd-fc2c-5546-a62f-b4920fdaf4a6)
Backpacking Stoves (#ulink_bae880bb-cf7e-5986-b8d9-3aab7c8241f7)
Using a White Gas Stove (#ulink_c7a0ee0d-1a61-5d81-b4cc-526a372c51e3)
Lightweight/Ultralight Cartridge Stoves (#ulink_d93be8a2-0919-5e91-a7ef-7e657e8b8a18)
MISCELLANEOUS GEAR (#ulink_240319d0-3ef1-5d59-8791-67fbcd3cc286)
TECHNOLOGY IN THE WILDERNESS (#ulink_80552ee6-9f31-5c8d-a746-9c03e3173af9)


EQUIPMENT ASSESSMENT (#ulink_cacb2bc8-d19f-5db7-8db7-5b669f1f011f)
The idea of being able to live with just what you carry on your back is one of the things that makes backpacking such an enticing activity. At the same time, that means that what you carry on your back becomes incredibly important—clothing, boots, sleeping bags, tents, stoves, first-aid gear, water filters, etc. This chapter is designed to help you think about the major pieces of equipment you’ll need for your trip. When it’s time to get your gear together, there are sample equipment lists in the Appendix, including personal equipment, group equipment, and first-aid equipment to help you gather what you need.
Whether you’re going for a one-day hike on a local trail or a month-long expedition to a remote area, you need to thoroughly plan what equipment to bring. The equipment assessment for your trip should cover the following areas:
PERSONAL EQUIPMENT (#ulink_67e47bd3-640b-5c2e-94e7-61fe07ac313e)

Clothing Shirts, pants, boots, hats, and so on
Travel What is needed for travel—just your feet or a canoe, a bike, cross-country skis, etc.
Storage What you use to carry personal and group equipment—a backpack, bike panniers, waterproof bags for canoeing, etc.
Sleeping Sleeping bag, foam/inflatable pad
Miscellaneous Water bottles, toiletries, personal items
GROUP EQUIPMENT (#ulink_b3fb8946-5b84-5ddf-9e7e-d0d49c1c28b0)

Shelter Evaluate the type of shelter required for the size of the group and anticipated weather conditions—tarpaulin, tent, or shelters on the trail.
Cooking Stoves, pots and pans, utensils
Hygiene Items for water purification, handwashing, going to the bathroom
First aid See page (#litres_trial_promo) for a list of first-aid essentials
Repair Anticipate what might break and have the necessary replacement parts and tools.
When deciding what equipment to bring, review your planned route and answer the following questions:

How long is the trip?
How many people are going? How does that affect the amount of group equipment needed?
Are people providing their own personal equipment?
Who is providing group equipment?
What season is it? What are the typical maximum and minimum temperatures during the day? What is typical weather (foggy morning, afternoon thunderstorms, etc.)? What is atypical weather (can it snow in July)? (See “Weather and Nature (#litres_trial_promo).”)
What is the altitude? What effect will the altitude have on temperature? (See “Temperature Ranges (#litres_trial_promo),”.)
What are the trip activities? What equipment will be needed for different activities?
Where is the trip? Is it remote or accessible?
Is equipment resupply a possibility or will you have to carry everything?
Do you need any special equipment for Leave No Trace camping? (See Chapter 5 (#litres_trial_promo).)
How will you deal with equipment repair if things break? What equipment items are more likely to break? What equipment items, if broken, would create serious problems for the trip (e.g., stoves)?
THE ESSENTIALS (#ulink_45593384-c8a2-51e5-82cc-5fe1825af86b)
No matter where you are going, and whether you are out for a day or a month, there are some pieces of equipment that are considered essential for safe hiking travel. There are countless tales of hikers who have gotten into trouble, even on short day hikes, because they neglected these essentials.

Map
Compass (and knowledge of how to use it)
Extra food
Extra clothing (polypropylene, fleece, or other insulating clothing)
Water bottle (full, 1–2 quarts)
Flashlight/headlamp with extra batteries
Rain gear
Pocketknife
Matches/lighter (best to have at least two sources for lighting a fire)
Candle or firestarter to help light a fire
First-aid kit
Sunglasses and sunscreen
Other recommended items include:

Watch
Water purification system
Large rubbish bag, space blanket, tube tent, or small tarpaulin for emergency shelter
Foam or inflatable sleeping pad for ground insulation
CLOTHING (#ulink_c5ed645f-a82b-5f24-bce4-5d3a82bc4af2)
Knowing what to buy and wear is hard. There are so many different materials out there that do similar things, and everything has a fancy name that ends in something like -ex or -tec. As you are reading this, some industrial chemist in a lab somewhere is developing the next generation of smart fabrics while garment designers dream up innovative features. Clothing manufacturers crank out new lines so frequently that it isn’t possible to give you specific information on what’s available now, so here are some general guidelines to help you choose the best clothing for your trip.
REGULATING YOUR BODY TEMPERATURE (#ulink_d80b3f66-ecf7-5fb5-a5aa-4c63917b8389)
In order to plan the right clothing for a trip, you need to understand how your body reacts to the temperature and weather conditions you are likely to experience. Balancing the heat you are losing to the environment with the heat you generate from exercise and absorb from the environment is called thermoregulation. If you gain more heat than you lose, you experience a heat challenge. (See “Regulating Body Temperature (#litres_trial_promo),”.) If you lose more heat than you gain, you experience a cold challenge. The ability to regulate body temperature is critical for preventing hyperthermia and hypothermia. (See “Heat-Related Illnesses (#litres_trial_promo),” and “Hypothermia (#litres_trial_promo),”.)
One way to regulate body temperature is to wear the right clothing and layer your clothing properly. Clothing items should be versatile enough to meet the various seasonal and weather conditions you may encounter. Since each person’s body is different, experiment to determine your individual requirements.
How Your Body Loses Heat
Heat leaves your body in the following ways:

Conductive Heat Loss occurs when contact is made between your body and a cooler surface. It can be minimized by not sitting on the cold ground, especially on snow. Conduction occurs 25 times faster with wet clothing than with dry. Prevention: Thickness of insulation.
Convective Heat Loss occurs when your body heat warms the air adjacent to your body; that air then rises and moves away from your body and fresh colder air replaces it. Wind increases the speed of heat loss through convection. The impact of heat loss from convection is measured by the windchill factor. (See “Windchill Index (#litres_trial_promo),”.) This same process happens when you are submerged in cold water, but it happens much faster than in air because of the greater density of water. An important element in dressing for the outdoors is trapping the air around the body. Prevention: Windproof garments.
Radiant Heat Loss is caused by the escape of infrared radiation from the body. It is minimized by wearing insulative fabrics or those with reflective fabric that reflects the heat back to the body. Prevention: Thick layers of insulation or reflective material.
Evaporative Heat Loss occurs when perspiration (water) on the skin evaporates, drawing heat from the body. Changing water from a liquid to a gas takes a lot of energy. This is why sweating helps cool you off when you are hot. In hot weather, evaporation is essential in cooling your body down to prevent heat illnesses. (See “Heat Challenge (#litres_trial_promo),”.) However, when it’s cold you want to minimize the amount of sweating to reduce evaporative heat loss. Prevention: Fabrics that move water away from the skin and vapor barriers (page (#ulink_97b24959-fc97-5254-86a9-926c10c65652)).
Trapping Your Body Heat
Clothing insulates you from the environment by trapping your body heat. The best insulation is a layer of static, unmoving air close to your body, known as “dead air.” This air is warmed by heat given off by your body (through radiation, conduction, and convection) and maintains a warm microclimate around your body. Clothing insulates by creating pockets of dead air. How much a particular clothing fabric insulates is based on its loft or thickness—the greater the loft, the more dead air space. Also, different fibers are better at creating dead air space than others. The goal is to find a fiber that creates lots of dead air space and at the same time doesn’t weigh very much. This is known as the warmth-to-weight ratio. A really light fiber like down has an excellent warmth-to-weight ratio.
Not all clothing is designed to insulate. In hot desert environments, thin layers of clothing with negligible loft are worn not to insulate but to provide shade from the sun to minimize overheating. You want something loose-fitting that ventilates and allows your sweat to evaporate, cooling you off.
THE LAYERING PRINCIPLE (#ulink_026d7d1f-fd9e-5926-bf18-66dc594979f5)
By wearing multiple layers of different types of fabrics you can maintain a comfortable body temperature without excessive sweating (which can lead to heat loss). Throughout the day, you “layer up” or “layer down” as temperature conditions and/or activity levels change. By experimentation, you can determine which of the base layer, insulating layer, and shell layers you require in various situations. The layers should not restrict your movement and the outer layer, especially, should not be too tight, since tight outer layers squeeze the layers beneath and actually compress the dead air space in layers below, reducing their insulation value. You can modify one or all of the following factors to properly thermoregulate.

Clothing Layers The number and type of layers you wear allow you to create sufficient dead air space for insulation and protection from external conditions (wind, rain, etc.). Extra layers may be added in the cooler hours of the morning or evening, or when your activity level drops, like at a lunch break.
Activity Level Increasing or decreasing your activity level increases or decreases the heat you generate.
Staying Dry An important factor in retaining heat is to minimize wetness, since you can lose heat 25 times faster in wet clothing than in dry. Moisture comes internally from perspiration generated by exercise or externally from rain or snow. You want clothing layers that minimize the buildup of moisture close to your skin and also protect you from external moisture.
Ventilation Opening up or closing the layers of your clothing allows you to decrease or increase heat loss as needed, without having to actually remove or add a layer. As you move, a bellows action occurs in clothing that pumps your accumulated warm air out through openings and pulls the cooler air in. In some conditions, this bellows action can reduce your body’s insulation by 50 percent or more, so unzip if you are too hot and zip up if you are cold. Ventilating also prevents moisture buildup from perspiration. Look for clothing that allows for easy ventilation, such as full-zip outer shell jackets, armpit zippers in shell jackets, zip-front turtle-necks, button-down shirts, and side-zip pants. Rolling up sleeves and pants legs is another way to ventilate.
THE CLOTHING LAYERS (#ulink_67d8a2af-b31a-5112-add5-b92b65688584)
The Base/Wicking Layer
The base/wicking layer keeps the skin dry and comfortable. This layer transports moisture from body perspiration away from the skin to the outside of the fabric. This layer should dry quickly. In cool weather, wear close-fitting layers to provide insulation. In warm weather, wear loose-fitting layers to maximize ventilation and absorption of moisture for the skin to keep cool and dry. There are a number of different ways to wick moisture away from your body:

Hydrophobic/Hydrophilic Fibers These are synthetic fibers often made of polyester or polypropylene that do not absorb water (as cotton does). They are extremely effective worn directly against the skin to keep it dry and reduce evaporative heat loss. In addition to not absorbing water, many of these fabrics are hydrophobic (“water-hating”) on the inside, so they push the water vapor from the area of highest concentration (next to your skin) to the outside of the fabric. Some fabrics are hydrophilic (“water-loving”) on the outside and pull the water outward. Others are bicomponent and use both a hydrophobic inner layer and a hydrophilic outer layer. The hydrophobic or hydrophilic nature is accomplished either by the physical characteristic of the fabric itself or by applying a chemical coating to the fabric. Examples: Capilene, Lifa, and Dryline.
Micro-channel Fibers These are synthetic fibers with tiny channels or capillaries within the individual fabric threads. These fabrics rely on what is known as “capillary action” to transport moisture through the channels from next to your skin to the outside of the fabric. Some fabrics are bicomponent with an inner layer of macrofiber yarn and an outer layer of microfiber yarn. The outer layer has a much greater surface area, which helps “pull” the water to the outside of the fabric. Examples: CoolMax and Polartec PowerDry.
Some of these fabrics have a definite “inside” and “outside.” If you wear a bicomponent garment inside out, you defeat the purpose of the garment. Garments that rely on the physical characteristics of the fabric itself rather than a chemical coating continue to function regardless of the number of times they are washed, while those that rely on a chemical treatment may eventually “wear out.” There are different thicknesses of these fabrics, generically called lightweight, medium weight, and heavy or expedition weight. The thicker fabrics offer great insulative value along with their wicking properties. Pro: Excellent inner layer. Minimizes moisture next to the body, where high conductive heat loss can occur. Con: Not windproof, so best used as an inner layer. Some fabrics retain odor more than others.
The Insulating Layers
The main purpose of the insulating layer is to create dead air space for insulation. It also absorbs some of the wicking layer’s moisture, keeping the moisture away from your skin, so you want it to easily pass moisture. Depending on the temperature this can be one layer or many layers.

First Layer Your first insulating layer is typically shirts and pants. This could be an extension of the wicking layer—for example, wearing middle-weight to expedition-weight polypropylene that both wicks and provides insulation. Layers that allow you to “open” and “close,” like zip-front turtlenecks or button-down shirts, allow for ventilation during periods of high heat-producing activity. Synthetics like polypropylene or Thermax work well in this layer.
Second Layer If you need more loft for insulation, add another insulating layer like synthetic fleece or wool pullovers, sweaters, jackets, and pants.
Outer Layer If it is really cold, you may need to add an even thicker layer like an insulated parka or pants. These typically have an outer and inner layer of fabric and either down or some synthetic insulating fill sandwiched in between. These layers are often worn at the beginning and end of the day in camp, when activity levels are low or in temperatures below freezing.
The Insulating Materials
Fleece is a synthetic fabric often made of a plastic (polyester, polyolefin, polypropylene). It has a “fuzzy” 3-D quality that imitates a sheep’s fleece and gives it insulating properties. It remains warm when wet, does not absorb moisture, and dries very quickly. This material has an insulative capacity similar to that of wool. Fleece is manufactured in a variety of thicknesses, offering different amounts of loft and insulation and numerous layering possibilities. Some fleece garments are made from recycled plastics or with a middle wind-proof layer. Pro: Fleece is able to provide the equivalent warmth of wool at half the weight. Con: Fleece by itself has poor wind resistance and almost always requires an additional wind-resistant layer. Examples: Polartec 100, Polartec 200.



TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Loose fill versus continuous fill Insulating fibers can either be loose fill, like down, or continuous fill, like Polarguard. Loose fills are made up of small individual fibers. In order to keep the fibers equally distributed throughout the sleeping bag or garment, the manufacturer has to sew in interior “walls” of fabric known as baffles to create individual compartments to hold the fill. This adds a lot to the manufacturing cost.
Continuous-fill fibers are made in large sheets that can be cut into the right shape and sewn directly into the sleeping bag or garment without baffles.
Wool derives its insulating quality from the elastic, three-dimensional wavy crimp in the fiber that traps air. Depending on the texture and thickness of the fabric, as much as 80 percent of wool cloth can be air. Wool can absorb a fair amount of moisture without imparting a damp feeling because the water “disappears” into the fiber spaces. Even with water in the fabric, wool retains some dead air space and will still insulate you. The disadvantage to wool is that it can absorb a lot of water, making it very heavy when wet. Maximum absorption can be as much as one-third the garment weight. Wool releases moisture slowly, with minimum chilling effect. Pro: Tightly woven wool is quite wind resistant. Wool clothing can often be purchased cheaply. Con: Wool garments can be heavy, take a long time to dry, and can be itchy against the skin. Some people are allergic.
Down The very soft underbody plumage of geese or ducks provides excellent insulation and dead air space for very little weight. (Goose down is finer quality than duck.) Down is rated by its fill power, or how many cubic inches of volume an ounce of down will fill. Fill power goes from 550 cubic inches up to 800—a 700-fill sleeping bag lofts better and is more thermally efficient than a 550-fill bag. Most high-end sleeping bags are made of 700 fill; 800 fill is mostly for expedition-quality garments and sleeping bags.
Since down is a loose fill, sleeping bags and clothing must have a series of small compartments sewn in with baffles to hold the fill evenly throughout, which adds to the manufacturing cost. Down is useful in sleeping bags since it tends to conform to the shape of the occupant and minimizes convection areas. It is also very compressible, which is an advantage when packing. But the same compressibility means that your body weight compresses the down beneath you, significantly reducing your insulation from the cold ground, so you need an insulating pad underneath you more so than with a synthetic bag. Pro: Excellent insulator. Incredible warmth-to-weight ratio. Compresses to extremely compact size. Long life span if cared for properly (up to 20 years). Con: When down gets wet it simply clumps together and loses almost all of its insulative value and is almost impossible to dry in the field. Use depends on your ability to keep it dry. When using a down sleeping bag, take special care to prevent it from getting wet. For example, a vapor barrier sleeping bag liner in a down bag will help the bag stay dry from the inside and a waterproof-breathable bivy sack will help the outside keep dry. Keeping the bag in a waterproof stuff sack will protect it during the day. In wet conditions a down-fill outer parka may get soaked, and a synthetic-fill would be better. Down is a loose fiber fill that requires baffles (see “Tricks of the Trail,” (#ulink_4e259739-1d37-5fe6-95cf-f41f1e4f9aa6).) Expensive. Some people are allergic.
Synthetic Fibers There is a multitude of different synthetic fibers used for garment and sleeping bag fills. Most are based on some form of polyester. These are primarily used in sleeping bags and heavy outer garments, like parkas. The fibers are fairly efficient at providing dead air space (though not nearly as efficient as down). Some products like Polarguard are made in large sheets. Others create additional dead air space by having hollow channels within the fiber (e.g., Quallofil). Pro: They do not absorb water and dry fairly quickly. Some fibers are produced in sheets that do not require baffling. Con: Heavy. Not as efficient an insulator as down. Hard to compress to a small size. Some are loose fibers that require baffling. Fibers produced in sheets tend to break down over time, losing their loft more quickly. Examples: Polarguard 3D, Polarguard Delta, Quallofil.
“Superthin” Fibers These synthetic fibers are based on the principle that by making the fiber thinner you can increase the amount of dead air space around the fiber. Some superthin fibers are close to the weight of down for an equivalent fiber volume. They stuff down to a small size and have similar warmth-to-weight ratios as down without the wetness issue. Pro: Lightweight and thermally efficient. Good compressibility for stuffing. They do not absorb water and dry fairly quickly. Some fibers are produced in sheets that do not require baffling. Can be stuffed down to a small size. Con: Some are loose fibers that require baffling. Some superthin fibers like Thinsulate are heavy and therefore aren’t good insulators for larger items like parkas and sleeping bags but are very effective in smaller items such as gloves and boots. Examples: Primaloft, Lite Loft, Thinsulate.
Phase Change Materials These materials use tiny spheres or microcapsules either laminated to or embedded within the fabric surface. What is unique about this approach is that the microcapsules can be manufactured to absorb or release heat at a specific temperature. In products designed for cold weather, the microcapsules absorb and retain body heat during periods of activity, and then release the heat back during periods of inactivity—sort of like taking off a layer and putting one back on. For clothing designed for warmer temperatures, the microcapsules absorb body heat, providing a cooling effect. Currently used mostly in gloves and boots. Pro: Absorbs heat to keep you cool in high activity. Releases heat back in low activity. Con: Expensive. Fabric is “tuned” to either cold temperatures or warm temperatures. Example: Outlast.
The Shell Layers
The shell layer consists of an outer jacket and pants layer that protects from wind, rain, snow, and sun. It is essential to have an outer layer that is wind-proof and at least water resistant, if not waterproof. Acting as a windbreaker, the shell layer minimizes convective heat loss, containing the warmth trapped by layers beneath. If your shell layer is waterproof but not breathable, moisture buildup from perspiration is possible, so look for garments that provide ample ventilation options, such as full-front zips and armpit zippers. Waterproof/breathable fabrics provide both wind and rain protection and still allow some perspiration moisture to escape. However, in a driving rain, there is almost nothing you can do to stay totally dry when you are being active. You will either zip up and get moist from sweat or ventilate and get wet from rain, so the goal is to minimize moisture. One thing to think about with shells is sizing—something that fits snugly over a shirt or blouse in the store is not going to work over your wicking layer and two insulating layers. In those cases you need a garment cut large enough to handle most of your inner layers. At the same time, it is not likely that you would buy something so big that you can fit your shell over a down or synthetic parka, so you need to ask yourself if the outer parka also needs to be waterproof.
Wind Shell A wind shell is just that—a shell that projects you from the wind. It is breathable, lets moisture out, and keeps wind out. Typically these are made from fairly lightweight materials such as nylon or nylon blends. They are tightly woven so there are no open spaces for the wind to penetrate. They dry quickly and make excellent outer shells for being active in dry conditions. Pro: Windproof. Allows body moisture to escape. Lightweight. Inexpensive. Con: Not waterproof. Examples: Ripstop Nylon, Pertex.
Soft Shell Soft shells are a step up from a wind shell. These are wind-resistant and water-resistant shells. They are made of synthetic materials with an open weave that allows body heat and built-up moisture from inner layers to escape but is still tightly woven enough to repel light wind and rain. They perform best in active sports where heat production from activity helps draw the moisture out. The heat transfer also works to keep precipitation from entering the fabric. These will keep you dry in “gentle rain” but are not designed to be completely waterproof. They dry quickly and make excellent outer shells. Pro: Wind resistant. Water resistant. Allows body heat and moisture to escape. Lightweight. Dries quickly from body heat. Con: Not completely windproof. Not waterproof. Expensive. If the garment gets totally wet and is in contact with wet inner layers, you can quickly chill from fast water-driven conduction. Examples: Conduit Soft Shell, Polartec Power Shield, Schoeller Dryskin.
Hard Shell Hard shells are waterproof and are designed to keep you dry in pouring rain conditions. There are two approaches to hard shells:

Waterproof Shell These are fabrics that use some type of impermeable waterproof coating (i.e., coated nylon). These will keep you dry from rain but allow water vapor from perspiration to build up in layers underneath. Pro: Very waterproof. Windproof. Inexpensive. Con: Allows for significant body moisture buildup.
Waterproof and Breathable Shell There are a number of ways to make a waterproof and breathable outer shell. All rely on the principle that water droplets from rain are more than 20,000 times larger than water vapor. With a fabric that has a layer with very tiny pores, water vapor can pass through from the inside to the outside while the outside remains impenetrable to water droplets. With all of these fabrics there is always a trade-off between the degree of waterproofness of the fabric and its breathability. Some fabrics use a microporous membrane that is laminated to the fabric (Gore-Tex, Sympatex); others have a microporous coating on the fabric (Ultrex, Triple Point Ceramic, Entrant). Pro: Degrees of waterproofness. Degrees of breathability. Windproof. Con: Degrees of waterproofness. Degrees of breathability. Some body moisture buildup. Expensive.
All hard shells require some form of seam sealing. While the fabric itself may be waterproof, any place where there is stitching means a hole going through the fabric that can let water in. There are a number of approaches to seam sealing including glue, heat sealing, and seam tape.



TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Bringing Your Rain Gear Back to Life After frequent use, all waterproof and breathable fabrics start to lose their edge. You can revitalize them by washing with a mild nondetergent soap, machine drying, and then lightly ironing the outer fabric on a medium temperature setting. The washing helps restore the membrane or coating’s effectiveness, and the heat of the iron helps bring back the ability to resist water.
Many fabrics (waterproof and waterproof/breathable) have a DWR (durable water repellant) chemical coating on the outside of the fabric. This is what makes water bead up on the surface of your jacket. It’s like your car after a new coat of wax. Over time these coatings wear off, allowing water to seep into the fabric. The garment may still be waterproof, just soaked on the outside and heavier. You can revitalize your DWR finish with spray-on products or by machine-washing it back in with a liquid treatment.
The Head Layer
This is for sun and rain protection, and to reduce heat loss. Up to 70 percent of the body’s heat can be lost through radiation and convection at the head in cold weather. Wearing a hat (preferably wool or synthetic) will conserve heat, allowing the body to send more blood to cold peripheral areas (hands, toes, feet). Other items like wide-brimmed hats can help in a downpour, keep sun off your face, and provide shade to help prevent overheating.
The Hand Layer(s)
These insulate your hands in cold conditions. Gloves and mittens come in all shapes and sizes with lots of different fabrics for insulation. They should fit snugly, not tightly. Gloves provide greater flexibility for your hands, but they are colder than mittens since they have greater surface area at the fingers for radiating heat. A combination of thin synthetic glove liners and fleece or wool mittens is excellent for cold weather. Also good are mitten shells, which add a windproof/waterproof layer. Fingerless gloves or flip-top mittens are great for cooking or other activities that require dexterity.
The Feet Layers
These serve as insulation and cushioning on your feet and help prevent blisters. You should wear a lightweight, synthetic liner sock, which helps pass moisture away from your foot. It’s helpful to use a liner sock that has wicking properties. On top of the liner, wear a medium to heavy wool, wool-nylon blend, or synthetic hiking sock. Having two sock layers means that your socks will slide against each other, so the friction from your boots is absorbed by the sock layers rather than rubbing your skin (friction against the skin leads to blisters; see page (#litres_trial_promo)). The outer sock provides cushioning and passes the moisture from your foot outward, keeping your foot dryer. If your feet stay damp, they get wrinkled and are more prone to blisters. Don’t wear cotton socks. The cotton absorbs and retains the sweat from your feet, keeping your feet wet throughout the day and increasing the potential for blisters or trenchfoot (see page (#litres_trial_promo)). Before putting your boots on, smooth the socks of all wrinkles to prevent blisters. You should always carry extra socks, with a recommended rotation of one set to wear, one to dry, and one always dry. I typically take three pairs of liners and two pair of wool/synthetics on multiday trips.
CLOTHING TECHNIQUES (#ulink_166cf9a4-03d8-594d-8544-38f9b095e5fb)

When you first get up in the morning, your activity level will be low, as will the air temperature. You will need to have many, if not all, of your layers on until you become active.
As your activity level increases, you will need to shed some layers, since you will start generating heat. A good rule of thumb is, just before you get ready to hike, strip down until you feel just cool, not chilled. Then start hiking. If you begin with too many layers on, you will only start overheating and sweating and you’ll have to stop 10 minutes down the trail to take layers off. Opening or closing a zipper, rolling sleeves up or down, taking a hat off or putting one on all help with temperature regulation.
If you stop for more than a few minutes, you may need to add a layer to keep from getting chilled, so keep an extra layer close at hand.
Different parts of your body may require different layering combinations. In winter conditions I need a lot of layers on my trunk to stay properly regulated, but my arms and legs don’t need as many layers. Vests provide insulation where you need it most, around the torso, and weigh less than a full jacket.
If your clothing gets wet—not just damp—take it off and change into something dry. You won’t be able to warm up if you are in soaking wet clothing. Remember, wetness can lead to hypothermia. (See “Hypothermia (#litres_trial_promo),”.)
At the end of the day, as activity decreases and temperature drops, you’ll need to add layers. Once you start to cool down, it takes a lot of the body’s resources (calories) to heat up again, so layer up immediately, before you get chilled. If your base layer is totally soaked, change into something dry before layering up. It may be good to put on more than you think you need; it will only get colder. If you are too warm, you can open up the layers and ventilate to reach the proper temperature.




TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Cotton What’s the worst thing to bring on a backpacking trip? Blue jeans. In temperate climates and environments, you should minimize your use of cotton clothing. Although cotton is comfortable to wear, cotton fibers absorb and retain water (hydrophilic). Once wet, cotton loses heat 25 times faster than dry clothing. Wet cotton clothing can be a significant factor in hypothermia (see “Hypothermia (#litres_trial_promo),”). Never wear cotton in cold conditions as a form of insulation. In warm weather, some cotton-synthetic blends can be used, since they dry more quickly than 100 percent cotton and do not absorb as much water. Pro: Comfortable when dry. Con: Absorbs water, causing increased heat loss. Loses all insulating value when wet. Difficult to dry.



GOING ULTRALIGHT – CLOTHING
Ultralight clothing is ultimately about understanding the environment and knowing yourself. In order to get the most out of an ultralight approach to clothing, you have to understand how your body works in particular temperatures and customize what you bring. I used to think about how cold it might get at night and then toss in a heavy fleece jacket as an extra layer when, in fact, a lightweight fleece vest underneath my rain jacket keeps me just as warm. Ultralight hikers develop a whole interconnected system where the layers complement one another in different combinations. Doing this can save you lots of weight without needing to buy specialized “ultralight versions” of everything. Experienced ultralight hikers know their bodies in different weather conditions and know just how to layer and delayer throughout the changing conditions of the day to keep warm, cool off, stay dry, etc. Some hikers have literally spent years refining their clothing system by fabric type, thickness, and number of layers to get it down to the least possible weight. Most people don’t have the time to spend years working all this out, so look for what the experts have to say. There is a rich set of Web sites devoted to ultralight gear and lots of people who test and review things (see the Bibliography (#litres_trial_promo)).
If you want to cut off even more weight, then buy specific ultralight gear. Weight is reduced by choosing particular fabrics that are thin and light, and by cutting out frills in the design that add weight. There are companies like GOLITE (www.golite.com) that specialize in ultralight gear. These companies have developed a set of interconnected products based on certain assumptions. If you go this route, you’ll need to determine if their assumptions about layering fit your body needs.
This step can get expensive, especially if you already have “regular” back-packing gear, so I suggest taking it a bit at a time. However, there aren’t “ultralight” versions of every type of garment. Instead, look for the lightest weight garment that provides the amount of insulation you need. For example, buy the lightweight fleece jacket and pair it with your rain gear for the same amount of insulation as a heavyweight fleece.
Don’t be fooled into thinking that the only factor you need to look at is weight. Flexibility in a garment, like its venting capability, can make something useful over a much broader temperature range. Also, some “garments” can serve dual purposes, such as a rain poncho that doubles as a tarpaulin for an emergency shelter. Ultralighters hate duplication, so they will take a multifunction item over a single function item every time. Ask typical AT through-hikers and see what they started carrying at first and what they ended up carrying as they learned just what they needed and how to get different clothing items to work together.
One caveat about going ultralight: it’s going to change the way you treat your gear. One of the reasons that things like packs are so heavy is not that manufacturers can’t make them lightweight. It’s that people abuse them so much. So the manufacturer adds a “super-double-extra-kevlar-cordura bottom panel” to the pack so the fabric doesn’t rip when you drop it on a rock. Ultralight gear is specifically not built this way, so you need to handle it carefully.


BOOTS (#ulink_bee9cb2e-d44d-5bf9-a04e-10a4d2160e1c)
Your boots are among the most important pieces of equipment that you take on a hike. With every step, they are the direct interface between you and the land. Boots come in an almost infinite array of heights, weights, materials, soles, etc. They should be selected according to your needs—day trip versus multiday, packweight, terrain, season and temperature, your hiking style (traditional versus ultralight), and personal characteristics (e.g., weak ankles), to name a few. And there isn’t one boot that is best for every condition. The boots that are best for a day hike are not the best boots for a multiday winter camping expedition. Boots are an investment. Selecting, fitting, breaking in, and caring for your boots will help them last a long time and will maximize your own comfort.
WHAT KIND OF BOOTS (#ulink_34a2f898-50aa-5497-85d1-0c08eadccf8f)
There’s no one boot that does it all, although there are boots that will handle a pretty wide range of uses and conditions. It’s generally estimated that every pound (2.2 kilograms) of weight in your boots is the equivalent in energy expenditure of adding 5 pounds (11 kilograms) to your back. Lifting your feet up for thousands of steps each day takes a lot of energy.
When you are looking for boots, go with the lightest weight boot that meets your needs. I think about what I need in a boot in relation to what I am doing on the trail. If I am doing an extended mountaineering trip and I’ve got a 60-pound (27 kilogram) pack, I want a stiff boot that extends well over the ankle to provide me with the kind of support I need. This boot is going to be somewhat heavy. If I’m going on a multiday trip and carrying 40 pounds (18 kilograms), I’ll be fine with a lightweight boot that extends just over the ankle. If I’m on a day hike or an ultralight multiday with less than 20 pounds, I can use trail shoes or running shoes. You’ll notice that I defined all of this in terms of my personal needs. I’ve got notoriously weak ankles, so I always opt for a lot of ankle support. Someone else might not need this much support (boot weight) while others might need more. As with clothing systems, you need to decide what your body needs and look for the lightest thing that meets those needs.
Some people bring a second pair of “camp shoes” for use in camp. After a long day it feels good to get out of your boots and air out your feet, especially if they are wet from sweat or rain. Changing to camp shoes can also help reduce your impact at camp. (See “Leave No Trace Hiking and Camping (#litres_trial_promo).”) There is an interesting weight issue here: The heavier your boots, the more important it may be to change into camp shoes. That means even more weight from carrying a second pair of shoes. Ultralight hikers who wear low-cut trail or running shoes don’t need camp shoes. Sandals like Tevas are popular for in-camp use and are also helpful in stream crossings when you want to keep your boots dry. Many ultralight backpackers hike in sandals, which have the advantage of drying quickly, especially in rainy weather or after stream crossings. Gaiters, a boot “add-on,” are boot covers, usually waterproof, that go over your boots and socks. They help keep your boots dry as well as protect your lower legs.
FITTING BOOTS (#ulink_ba9edb08-32a6-5eb6-8c59-16753d5f1d38)
Proper fitting of boots is essential, and whole treatises have been written on the subject. One thing to know about boots is that all boots are constructed on what’s called a last, a representative “average” foot mold (length, width at toes, width at heel, etc.) that the boot is built around for each shoe size. Some boot makers use a unisex last for each size while others have a separate last for women’s boots and men’s boots (and there are lasts for children’s boots). I’ve found that some manufacturers’ lasts just don’t work with my feet while others seem to be just right. Finding that winning combination of a boot that has the features you want and the correct last is your goal.
You should try new boots on in the afternoon, since your feet swell during the day. Select a sock combination of a liner sock and outer sock that you plan to wear on the trip, and try the boots on. Bring your own socks. A lot of times I’ve forgotten to bring my own socks to the store and end up using socks from some random pile the store has. Then when I get home it turns out that with my own socks the boots don’t fit right. With the boot unlaced, slide your foot all the way to the toe end of the boot. You should be able to get your index finger to fit between the back of your heel and the back of the boot. Lace up the boots with moderate tension. The laces should hold the boot in an “intermediate position”—that is, that you still have room to crank them tighter, pulling the boot together more, or loosening them up, so you can tighten or loosen the boots as needed. You should be able to wiggle your toes inside the boot. With your foot flat on the ground, hold the boot heel down and try to lift your heel inside the boot. There should be only
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to
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inch (6 to 12 millimeters) of heel lift. Too much heel lift will lead to friction and possible heel blisters. You also want to check the boot length. With the boot firmly laced, do some good hard kicks against a post or the floor. Do your toes smash into the front of the boot? If so you’ve discovered “boot bang.” This is a serious problem. On long downhill stretches your toes smashing into the front of the boot can result in lost toenails and other foot problems. Whatever boot bang you experience in the store will be magnified when you are going downhill with a heavy pack. If you are getting boot bang, try lacing differently, another size, different sock combination, or another boot.
As we get older our feet tend to get longer—no, we aren’t still growing, but most people’s arches begin to flatten out and without that curve the feet get longer. So if you haven’t been hiking for a while you might be in trouble if you pull that five-year-old pair of boots out of the closet and expect them to fit like they used to. If it’s been a while, wear them around before your trip and make sure it’s not time to buy a new pair.
BREAKING IN BOOTS (#ulink_51bb4636-3c2b-5853-ac3f-99be4b7440dd)
Before you leave the store with your new boots, make sure that you can bring them back if they don’t fit. Most stores are good about this if you only wear them indoors and bring them back in good condition and in a reasonable period of time. Start wearing your boots around the house to be sure you have the right fit. Once you are happy with the fit, you need to break the boots in to your feet. Always break in a pair of new boots well before your trip. Most medium to heavyweight boots will require some use to soften up and conform to your particular feet. Even old boots should get a little break-in if you haven’t worn them for a while. Begin with short walks and gradually increase the time you wear them. Easy day hikes are a good way to break in boots. Each time you lace your boots, take the time to align the tongue and lace them properly; otherwise, the tongue will set into a bad position, which can lead to hot spots and blisters.



TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Warm Up Those Cold Boots On a cold night, turn your sleeping bag stuff sack inside out and put your boots inside. Sleep with the stuff sack in your sleeping bag, between your legs. The coated nylon of the stuff sack will keep the wet boots from soaking your sleeping bag, and your body heat will keep the boots warm and help dry them out a bit so you don’t have to face cold or even frozen boots in the morning.
BOOT CARE (#ulink_58742954-9211-554e-8c0e-8357070fa402)
Boot care varies with the type of material—leather, synthetic leather, nylon, and combinations of these. If you have all-leather hiking boots, find out what type of leather it is. Oil-tanned leather is usually treated with wax or oil, chrome-tanned leather with silicone wax (a beeswax-silicone mixture is recommended). The primary reason for treating boots is not to completely waterproof them, but to make them water repellent and to nourish the leather to prevent it from drying and cracking. Boots should be treated when they are new and on a regular basis to keep the leather supple.
Wet boots should be air-dried slowly or with low heat (put them in the sun). Don’t try to dry boots quickly (for example, near a fire or a radiator)—different thicknesses of leather dry at different rates, which leads to cracking and curling. I’ve seen boots peel apart from drying too fast near a fire. While walking on the trail, the heat from your foot will help dry the boot. At the end of the day, when you take off your boots, open them up as much as possible to help them dry out. (This will also make them easier to put on in the morning.) You may want to leave your boots upside down at night to prevent dew from forming inside.
When you return from a trip, always clean your boots before you store them, or the dirt will corrode the stitching at the seams. Use a stiff, nonwire brush to remove caked-on dirt. For leather boots, rub them with moistened saddle soap. Wipe off the residue, air-dry them thoroughly, then apply a generous coating of wax or sealer. Store your boots in a cool, dry place to prevent mildew. Boot trees can help maintain the shape of your boot and cedar boot trees can absorb moisture from the inside of the boot, helping it dry slowly.
THE BACKPACK (#ulink_aa4cc0e7-2953-5e9b-81ec-e5d8eb15f6fb)
There are two basic types of packs: external and internal frame. The purpose of the frame is to transfer most of the weight of your gear onto your hips, so the strong muscles in your legs carry the load, rather than your shoulders. If you remember trying to carry loads of books home from school in a day pack, you know what I mean. The ideal distribution is about 70 to 80 percent of the weight on your hips and 20 to 30 percent on your shoulders. This split in weight also lowers your center of gravity, making you more stable. Recent advances in pack design offer an incredible range of sizes and options.


External-Frame Pack


Internal-Frame Pace

External Frame The external-frame pack helped revolutionize back-packing. Suddenly, much larger amounts of weight could be easily and safely carried, allowing for longer trips. External-frame packs typically use a ladderlike frame of aluminum or plastic. The hip belt and shoulder straps are attached to the frame (see diagram below). A separate pack bag attaches to the frame, usually with clevis pins and split rings. Pack bag volumes range from 3,000 to 4,500 cubic inches (49 to 73 liters). There is also space for attaching large items like a sleeping bag to the outside of the frame so the actual carrying capacity of the pack is more than the pack bag volume. Some external-frame packs come in specific sizes based on the length of your spine; others are adjustable to fit a range of sizes. Look for good lumbar padding, a conical hip belt, recurved shoulder straps with good padding, and a chest compression strap. Pro: Good for carrying weight. The external frame allows for some air space between your back and the pack bag so your back doesn’t sweat as much. The weight is carried higher in the pack, allowing for a more upright posture. Frame extension bars and space for a sleeping bag outside of the pack allow you to strap on lots of gear when you need to, making the carrying capacity of the pack more versatile. Less expensive than many internal-frame packs. Con: Since external-frame packs carry the load higher, they raise your center of gravity, making you more “top heavy” and less stable. Most external-frame packs don’t hug your body as well, so the pack tends to wobble from side to side as you walk. This is usually not a problem on a regular backpacking trip, but can throw you off balance if skiing or snowshoeing. Airline baggage-handling machines are notorious for bending frames. Don’t take it on an airplane unless you have boxed it up.
Internal Frame Internal-frame packs use a wide variety of materials—aluminum stays, carbon fiber, plastic sheets, and foam—to create a rigid spine to which the hip belt and shoulder straps are attached (see diagram (#ulink_52653503-a895-53b3-ad23-8e123b97de63)). The pack bag runs the full height of the pack, although it may be divided into several compartments. Pack volumes range from 3,000 to 7,500 cubic inches (49 to 122 liters). Some internal-frame packs come in specific sizes based on the length of your spine; others are adjustable to fit a range of sizes. As with an external-frame pack, you should look for good lumbar padding, a conical hip belt, recurved shoulder straps with good padding, and a chest compression strap. A removable top pocket and a bivy extension (a fabric layer sewn around the top opening of the pack bag that, when pulled up, adds to the overall pack volume) on the pack bag will let you lift the top pocket and store more gear. Also, make sure that the pack has side compression straps to squeeze the pack down if you are carrying a smaller load. Pro: Good for carrying lots of weight. Conforms to the body for better balance. Generally more comfortable to wear for long periods. Con: Since the pack bag and frame are directly against your entire back, back perspiration can be a problem. Since the weight is carried lower in the pack, you may have to bend over more. You can’t put as much on the outside, so the overall carrying capacity of the pack is somewhat fixed by its internal volume. Tends to be more expensive than external frame packs.
Day packs Day packs typically forgo a frame and use a foam or plastic sheet for the back panel. This provides some rigidity and helps distribute weight to the hips (up to a point). How much of a frame you need depends on how much weight you plan to carry. For heavier weights, look for well-padded shoulder straps, a foam hip belt rather than just a webbing strap, and a chest compression strap. Day pack volumes range up to 3,000 cubic inches (49 liters).



GOING ULTRALIGHT – PACKS
If you are going ultralight, then the size and weight of your pack can decrease substantially. The ultralight approach means three things—bringing less stuff, bringing lighter stuff, which means less volume of stuff. That means that ultralight packs don’t need to be so large; most are under 3,000 cubic inches (49 liters). Since you are carrying less weight, the pack doesn’t need to have a huge and heavy frame system to transfer the weight, so it can be made of lighter weight material. Since you aren’t carrying 50+ pounds (110 kilograms), you don’t need all that padding on the hip belt and the shoulder straps—you might not even need a hip belt. You can just feel the pounds melting off.

Ultralight Internal-Frame Packs have a lightweight internal frame with simple shoulder straps and a foam or webbing hip belt. Most of these packs weigh between 1 and 3 pounds (0.4 to 1.3 kilograms).
Ultralight Rucksacks forgo a frame altogether. They are typically just a bag with shoulder straps and weigh a pound (2.2 kilograms) or less. By stuffing the inside full of your gear or by adding a rolled foam pad, you “build” enough of a “frame” to transfer the weight. Some have a very light hip belt or no hip belt at all. If you keep the weight low enough you can comfortably carry all the weight on your shoulders. Some are made of lightweight mesh to reduce weight.


PACK SIZE (#ulink_ef26dcc6-5266-5872-b7e9-dfbc2731aa6d)
Size is an important factor when selecting a pack. You need to make sure that you can adequately carry all the equipment and food you will need for the length of your trip. Keep in mind that the pack bags of external-frame packs are smaller than those of internal-frame packs. This is because there are spaces on the external-frame pack to strap large items directly to the frame. For example, a sleeping bag in a stuff sack may be anywhere from 700 to 1,500 cubic inches (11 to 25 liters). Here are some rough guidelines on pack size related to trip length:




TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Buying a Pack When you go to the store and try on a pack, the salesperson will help you adjust it, and it will feel great. Then she will give you a few sandbags (25–30 pounds or 11–13 kilograms) to add some weight. Chances are it will still feel good. The real test is when you get home and try to carry 50 to 70 pounds (22–31 kilograms). Make sure that the store will take the pack back if it doesn’t feel right. I bought a pack once without doing this test until I hit the trail. With 60 pounds in the pack, the hip belt slipped off my butt and I ended up carrying most of the weight on my shoulders. I hiked in discomfort for days.
SIZING A PACK (#ulink_db235756-ab5d-5964-94e7-2533117878b0)
It is essential to have a pack that fits properly. The major measurements are your spine length, waist size, and shoulder width to get a pack the correct length and one with the correct size hip belt and shoulder straps. Packs vary from company to company, so check the manufacturer’s instructions for both fitting and loading. Many packs come with different size hip belts and/or shoulder straps and some are specifically designed for women’s bodies. The idea behind a frame pack is to have the frame transfer most of the weight to your legs through the hip belt. Therefore, when fitting a pack, the place to start is with the hip belt. Here are some general fitting guidelines:

Put on the pack and adjust the hip belt to fit your hips. Wear the hip belt on the hip bones just underneath the rib cage. The center of the hip belt is about at the crest of your pelvis. The buckle will be about at your navel. Wearing the hip belt higher transfers weight onto major muscle groups. Wearing the belt too low on the hips can compress arteries and nerves and lead to poor circulation and numbness in the legs.
With the hip belt on and properly positioned, tighten the shoulder straps and note their position. Some packs will allow you to adjust the height at which the shoulder straps attach to fine-tune your fit. For an external-frame pack the straps should come off the frame about even with the top of your shoulders. If the straps drop too far down, the pack is too small, and too much weight will be pulled onto your shoulders. If the straps go too far up, the pack is too large, and too little weight will go onto your shoulders. For an internal-frame pack the frame stays or frame structure should extend 2 to 4 inches above your shoulders. The shoulder straps should follow the contour of your shoulders and join the pack approximately 2 inches (5 centimeters) below the top of your shoulders. The position of the shoulder harness can usually be adjusted. The lower ends of the straps should run about 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) below your armpits. On both types of packs be sure the width of the shoulder straps is positioned so that they neither pinch your neck nor slip off your shoulders. On the shoulder straps you may find load lifters that connect to the pack at about ear level and connect to the shoulder straps in front of your collarbone. These help pull the top of the pack onto your shoulders.
Some internal-frame packs allow you to bend the frame stays to adjust them to match the curvature of your back.
In both types of packs the sternum strap should cross your chest below your collarbone. If the pack is properly fitted, you can adjust the load lifters and other fine-tuning straps to make the pack hug your back. Adjustments can also be made while hiking, periodically shifting the weight distribution to other muscle groups, which makes hiking less tiring.
PACKING YOUR PACK (#ulink_9ece0c66-21c0-5742-bf16-90fc6edebff2)
Loading an External-Frame Pack
The major consideration in loading a pack is how best to distribute the weight. There are two basic principles: for trail hiking over generally flat ground, the weight of the pack should be high and relatively close to the body. The heavier items should sit between your shoulder blades. For consistently steep or rough terrain, carry the weight lower to give you better balance and avoid falls from having a higher center of gravity. In this case, heavier things should be placed more toward the middle of your back. To achieve either arrangement, load the heavier, bulky items into the large top compartment in the position where you want most of the weight. Then fill this and the remaining compartments with lighter items. Tents and tarpaulins can be lashed to the extender bars at the top of the pack and sleeping bags can usually be lashed to the frame at the bottom of the pack. In either case, the horizontal weight distribution should be balanced so that the left side of the pack is in balance with the right. A woman’s center of gravity is generally lower than a man’s. So, for women, the heavier items should be placed close to the body but lower in the pack, as in the case for rough terrain, described above. Packs designed especially for women take this into account by lowering the pack bag on the frame. Load these packs as described above and then lash sleeping bags and tents or tarpaulins to the extender bars at the top of the packs.


Packing External- and Internal-Frame Packs
Loading an Internal-Frame Pack
Your gear will help form the structure of support for an internal-frame pack. For easy, level hiking, a high center of gravity is best. To achieve this, load bulky, light gear (e.g., your sleeping bag) low in the pack and stack heavier gear on top of it. For steeper terrain, a lower center of gravity is best because it lessens the chance of falls from a top-heavy pack. In this case, place heavier items a little lower in the pack and closer to your back than normal. Women may prefer this arrangement under all circumstances.
GENERAL PACKING SUGGESTIONS (#ulink_f7377b92-4cd9-5fda-a91b-63ee0b03ab09)

Stuff your clothes into the pack or pack items in stuff sacks rather than fold them. This serves to fill all the available space of the pack better so that things don’t shift around and allows you to get more into the pack.
The more common weight distribution (general trail hiking) has the lighter, bulkier items on the bottom: the sleeping bag and clothes. The heavier items such as food, stoves, and fuel go into the upper section or on top of the pack, with the heaviest items closest to the pack frame. A general rule is that 50 percent of the weight should be in the upper third of the pack.
For consistently steep or rough terrain, carry the weight lower to give you better balance.
The horizontal weight distribution should be balanced so that the left side of the pack is in balance with the right.
Your hip belt should have enough room to allow you to loosen or tighten it for different layers of clothing beneath. If the belt is too loose, socks or shirts can be inserted between the belt and your body. This adds an extra layer of padding to the belt as well, which may increase the comfort of the fit.
Avoid hanging things all over the outside of your pack—no one wants to listen to you clank and clang your way down the trail; also, all that junk can snag branches. If you find yourself having to tie things on all the time, either your pack is too small or you are carrying too much (or both).
Think about the things you will need during the day and have them relatively accessible so that it doesn’t take a complete emptying of your pack to find lunch, the first-aid kit, or your rain gear. Also, group and store items according to function. For example, keep toiletries together. Small stuff sacks help organize your gear.
For protection from rain, line your sleeping bag stuff sack and main pack compartments with plastic rubbish bags. These can be reused on subsequent trips and recycled when you are through with them. They also work as emergency shelters. Pack rain covers are also useful.
Fuel bottles should be placed below any food items or in pockets on the outside of your pack.
How Much Weight?
How much weight to carry depends on your size, weight, and physical condition. The general rule for a multiday backpacking trip is to carry no more than 15 to 25 percent of your body weight. On longer expeditions or trips with more gear (such as winter camping), this figure may go up. The bottom line is, don’t carry more than you need or more than you can handle. Many a hiker has blown out knees, ankles, or back by hauling more weight than she could handle. Here are some things to do to make your trip as comfortable as possible:

Try on your loaded pack at home before you leave.
Fiddle with the pack and adjust it at home (you probably won’t take the time to do this at the trailhead while your friends are waiting).
Weigh your pack and compare that to your body weight. Figure out the percent of your body weight that you are carrying. Is it too much?
Take a good look at what you are bringing. Prune out any odd nonessentials.
Look and see what other people are carrying and how the whole group can share the load in a way that makes sense for each member, given size, weight, physical condition, and experience.
Checking Your Pack Before a Trip

Take a look at the shoulder straps, hip belt, and other compression and load-carrying straps.
Check all pack buckles.
Check all zippers.
Check the pack bag itself for rips or tears.
If the pack is an external-frame pack with a pack bag mounted onto the frame, check the attachment pins (typically clevis pins and split rings).
Putting on a Heavy Pack
There are a number of methods for putting on a heavy pack to avoid straining.

1 With the pack on the ground and the shoulder straps facing you, lift the pack up and rest it on one extended knee. Slide one arm through a shoulder strap. At this point, your shoulders will be slightly tilted, so that the shoulder strap is sliding onto your shoulder toward your neck. Lean forward slightly and rotate your body to swing the pack onto your back. Slide your other arm through the other shoulder strap. Adjust the hip belt first. The easiest way to do this is to bend over at the waist so the weight is being carried on your back rather than your hips and the hip belt is free to be snugged up tightly. Then you can straighten up and adjust the shoulder straps. Aim for 70 to 80 percent of the weight on your hips.
2 Follow the same technique with a friend to help stabilize your pack. This is especially helpful if you are carrying a large or very heavy pack.
3  Lift the pack up onto an object that is about waist high (rock, log). Stabilize the pack and slip your arms through both shoulder straps. Pull on the pack and tighten the hip belt.


Putting on a Pack
I don’t recommend putting your pack on while sitting on the ground and then trying to stand up. This can place too much strain on your lower back. Instead, ask a friend (or two) to pull you up.
SLEEPING EQUIPMENT (#ulink_6327ef31-e734-52dc-881f-233baeb6255f)
SLEEPING BAGS (#ulink_18ed72e0-3b33-5c5d-9eeb-a5102ff317b7)
When selecting a sleeping bag, you need to consider a number of factors. Unlike clothing layers, a sleeping bag doesn’t offer much in the way of ventilation to control your body temperature. As a result, you might have more than one bag: a summer-rated bag for hot conditions, a three-season bag for spring and fall, and a winter bag for serious cold-weather conditions.
Sleeping Bag Temperature Ratings
Sleeping bags come with temperature ratings to give you a general idea of how cold it can get and if the bag will still provide adequate insulation to keep you warm. These ratings are averages and should be used only as guidelines. Some people sleep “colder” than others, so you may need a bag with more or less insulation to be comfortable at a particular temperature. Also, ratings differ from manufacturer to manufacturer. To calculate the temperature rating you will need, look at the lowest normal temperature for the trip location and season you are going, and then subtract 10° or 15°F (9° or 12°C) from that temperature. This gives you a margin of safety in case the temperature is colder than expected. For example, if the usual nighttime temperature is 50°F (10°C), bring a bag that goes to about 35°F (2°C). Here are some general guidelines for sleeping bag ratings:

Sleeping Bag Styles
The following are three general styles for sleeping bags:

Mummy A form-fitting bag with a hood. The bag tapers in width from the shoulders to the legs, with little room. This snug fit means that there is less convective heat loss in the bag, making for a warmer bag. Mummy bags use less fill than comparable rectangular bags and will weigh less.
Rectangular Simple rectangular bag typically without a hood. These are the roomiest bags but also are heavier since they are just as wide at the feet as they are at the shoulders.
Semi-rectangular This bag is rectangular at the top without a hood and it tapers somewhat to the feet. It is not as warm as a mummy bag but provides more room, and weighs less than a comparable rectangular bag.
Specific Features to Look for

A hood allows you to insulate your head to prevent heat loss in cold weather. If this is a summer weather bag, a hood may not be necessary.
The draft tube is an insulated tube that runs along the zipper line and prevents cold spots at the zipper.
A draft collar provides a closure at the neck area to reduce the bellows action of heat leaving the bag. Good for cold-weather bags.
Well-designed zippers allow you to open and close your bag easily from the inside and allow some level of ventilation.
Sleeping Bag Fit
Fit is as important in a sleeping bag as it is in clothing. In sleeping bags, you want the bag to snugly conform to your body. If the bag is too big, you will have large spaces for convection currents and you’ll be cold. You might even need to wear extra clothing layers to help fill up the space. If the bag is too tight, the insulation may actually be compressed, decreasing its effectiveness. How comfortable you feel in the bag can also affect your night’s sleep—some people feel confined in a snug sleeping bag and need more “wiggle room” than others.
Insulation Types
When we talk about how warm a sleeping bag is, we mean the loft of the bag. Loft is the amount of dead air space created by the fill used in the sleeping bag. There are a variety of fills for sleeping bags, but they break down into two categories: synthetic fibers and down (see pages (#ulink_b6ff3b67-dfec-54e7-aab9-a3b04d624511) for details).
Sleeping Bag Care
Keep in mind that sleeping bags age. Over years of use, the fibers that create the loft in the bag break down and dead air space diminishes even though the bag stills weighs the same. This means that the bag is no longer capable of keeping you warm at its original temperature rating. Here are a few things you can do to prolong the life of your bag:

Stuff your sleeping bag into its stuff sack rather than rolling it. Rolling compresses and ultimately breaks the fibers in the same direction, decreasing loft faster. Stuffing is a random pattern of compression that helps your loft last longer.
Don’t keep your sleeping bag in its stuff sack between trips. Keep the bag unstuffed in a large breathable bag like a laundry bag.
Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for washing your bag and wash the bag only when necessary (repeated washings tend to reduce the loft of the bag).
Sleeping Bag Extras
Here are a number of sleeping bag extras that can be useful on your trip:

Sleeping Bag Liner Sleeping bag liners can serve as a lightweight cover for sleeping on top of your bag in hot weather. Tightly woven fabrics like silk can even work as mosquito netting. In cooler weather, a lightweight liner of Thermolite weighs only a few ounces and can add 10° to 15°F (8° to 9°C) of warmth to the rating of your bag. For long-distance hikers, you can mail the liner home when you no longer need it. Liners also can help keep the inside of your bag clean, reducing the number of times the bag needs to be washed.
Vapor Barrier Liner A vapor barrier liner can add about 10°F (9°C) to the rating of your bag by reducing evaporative heat loss. You may feel a little moist inside, so wear polypropylene or other hydrophobic wicking layers against your skin.
Bivouac (Bivy) Sack This waterproof outer shell can add 10° to 15°F (8° to 9°C) to the rating of your bag.
Overbag This is actually another lightweight rectangular sleeping bag cut to fit over a regular bag. Depending on the amount of insulation, an overbag can add 10° to 25°F (8° to 11°C) to the rating of your bag. A properly matched sleeping bag/overbag system can be a great combination. The overbag alone can be used for a summerweight bag. The sleeping bag alone can be used for fall and spring, and the combined bags can be used for cold weather (but may not be warm enough for a full winter trip).




TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Sleeping Warm Your sleeping bag will be whatever the ambient air temperature is. Here are some tricks for warming things up before you crawl into your bag to sleep:

After dinner, fill a water bottle with hot water. Put the hot bottle inside your bag before you get in to preheat the bag. The water should stay warm all night. (Make sure you have a bottle that seals tightly.)
Get in your bag and do a bunch of sit-ups. The surge of body heat will warm you and the bag.
Change into dry clothing (like polypropylene) before getting into your bag.
Wear extra clothing, if necessary. How much clothing to wear in your bag depends on how much extra space there is around your body in the bag, whether you are adequately hydrated, and whether you sleep “warm” or “cold.” If there is space, wear extra layers to increase the dead air space around your body. Remember, you will need to warm up all your layers as well as the bag.
Head out or head in? Some people like to pull the hood drawcords so tight that only their nose is sticking out. This makes me feel a little claustrophobic, so I’m a head-outer. But that makes me colder, so I bring a good fleece hat. When bugs are about, I use a mosquito head net.
SLEEPING PADS (#ulink_48981505-4ec0-530d-8882-f30d752bca68)
Sleeping pads serve two functions: comfort, cushioning your body from rocky ground; and more important, insulation. In cold conditions, a sleeping pad is essential to maintain your body heat by preventing conductive heat loss to the colder ground. Sleeping pads come in two basic types: closed-cell foam such as Ensolite or inflatable pads such as Therm-A-Rest pads. Closed-cell foam pads are lightweight and roll up to a small diameter. They tend to get a little stiff in cold weather. Inflatable pads are typically open-cell foam covered with coated nylon and have an inflation valve at one end. Some people feel that inflatables are more comfortable, although they tend to be a little slippery—tough if your tent is pitched on a slope. With inflatable pads you should carry repair items (good old duct tape) to patch any holes that develop in the nylon outer layer. A leaky inflatable is almost useless.
For three-season camping, a pad that is
/
inch thick (10 millimeters) is adequate. In colder conditions, you should have
/
inch (12 millimeters) of insulation between you and the ground. Pads are available in either full length or partial length (three-fourths or two-thirds). You can save weight by not using a full-length pad. Full-length pads are essential only in very cold environments, so that no part of your sleeping bag is in contact with the cold ground.



GOING ULTRALIGHT – SLEEPING BAGS AND PADS
You can cut down on sleeping bag weight in a couple ways: fill and features. Going with a “superlight” synthetic fill or a down bag will decrease the weight for a particular temperature range of bag. For warm weather camping you don’t need features like draft tubes that add weight. You can get 40°F (4°C) sleeping bags that weigh 2 pounds (4.4 kilograms) or less.
While I like the comfort of an inflatable pad, and there are ones that are very light, I think a foam pad is actually a better choice in an ultralight setting. Foam pads have many more uses than just insulating your body from the ground. If you are carrying a frameless rucksack, your rolled foam pad can create the “frame” for additional support. In first-aid situations, they can be cut up for splints; you can pad your blistered heels with them; insulate pots from the cold ground; and on and on.


SHELTER (#ulink_6bc19bb2-74cd-5df2-a55b-27ccf801a7cb)
When planning your trip, you need to know whether you should bring your own shelter or there will be shelter options available on a daily basis along the trail. If you need to bring your own shelter, there are a number of options:

Tarpaulins Pro: Lightweight. Inexpensive. Less condensation. Con: Not as weatherproof as a tent. Does not provide bug protection. May require trees to set up.
Tents Pro: Good weather protection. Good bug protection. Con: More condensation. Heavier. More expensive.
GENERAL SHELTER TIPS (#ulink_47265916-358e-5eed-a10b-f9dd4548db35)

Whenever you use a tent or tarpaulin, think carefully about site placement so that you leave no trace. A tent or ground sheet on grass for more than a day will crush and yellow the grass beneath, leaving a direct sign of your presence. Stakes can damage fragile soils, and guylines and tarpaulin lines can damage trees.
Find a resilient or already highly impacted location. Try to find a relatively flat location; hollowed-out areas pool water in a storm.
If possible, identify the prevailing wind direction and set up your tarpaulin or tent accordingly. If rain is a possibility, set up so that the openings don’t face the oncoming wind.
TARPAULINS (TARPS) (#ulink_7abd6215-c6df-5d3c-aec4-8959fb7c5a9b)
Tarp setup can be an art. You typically use a ground sheet underneath to provide a floor and protect your sleeping bag and gear from wet ground. You need trees located an appropriate distance apart in order to set up a tarpaulin, although you can also rig a tarpaulin from overhead branches or trekking poles. There are many variations, but the most weatherproof is the basic A-frame.
A-Frame Tarpaulin Setup
Select an appropriate location in your campsite to set up your tarpaulin (see page (#litres_trial_promo)). Have a tarpaulin line of sufficient diameter (
/
inch or 6 millimeter braided nylon) to prevent knots from slipping.
Tree Method Secure one end of the tarpaulin line to a tree using a bowline knot (see “Bowline (#litres_trial_promo),”) at an appropriate height for the size of your tarp, and stretch the running end to the other tree. You can set your tarp line height so that the bottom edges of the tarp will lie several inches/centimeters above the ground sheet, allowing for ventilation, or wrap the edges of the tarp under the ground sheet for better weather protection (but less ventilation).
Wrap the running end of the tarpaulin line around the second tree and tie it off using an adjustable knot such as a tent hitch or a lorry hitch (see “Tent Hitch (#litres_trial_promo),” “Lorry Hitch (#litres_trial_promo),”). This will allow you to set and later reset the tension of your tarpaulin line. To tighten the tarpaulin line, simply slide the tautline hitch or pull on the trucker’s hitch and tie it off. The tautline hitch is preferred since it can be easily retensioned.
Place the tarpaulin over the tarpaulin line and stake out the corners of the tarpaulin at 45 degree angles. This can be done using stakes or by tying the guylines to rocks or other trees. Make sure the tarpaulin is adequately guyed out so that strong winds won’t tear it down. Or you can fold the edge of the tarpaulin underneath the ground sheet and weigh it down with rocks on the inside to create a very rainproof shelter.
Pole Method If you don’t have trees available, you can use sticks or trekking poles at either end of the tarpaulin. Stake out the four corners of the tarpaulin at 45 degree angles. Raise the pole at one end of the tarpaulin and either use two half-hitches (see page (#litres_trial_promo)) or a simple tension wrap around the top of the pole, then run the guyline down to the ground and stake it out. Do the same on the other side. You will need to make sure both ends are staked down well and the entire line is under tension in order to properly support the tarpaulin. Some tarpaulins have side lifters that, when guyed out, prevent sagging and increase headroom under the tarpaulin.


A-Frame Tarpaulin
Tree Method A simple tarpaulin setup is to locate the entrance next to a tree and guy the center point onto the tree while guying the front corners out. The rear end can be staked out with a pole or stick for more ventilation or flattened out to reduce the number of stakes and lines needed.
Tarpaulin Tips

To prevent rainwater from running down the tarpaulinline into the tarpaulin, tie a bandanna on the line just outside the tarpaulin. It will redirect the water drips to the ground.
You can create your own grommets for guylines by placing a small stone on the inside of the tarpaulin and tying parachute cord around it from the outside. The free end of the parachute cord can then be staked out. This is useful if grommets are broken or if more support is needed for the tarpaulin.
Rain ponchos can be used as makeshift doors to prevent wind and rain from blowing in through the ends of the tarpaulin.
If there aren’t trees around, try boulders, rock outcroppings, or other objects to string up your tarpaulin.
TENTS (#ulink_00bfb5e9-40c9-51fc-9747-c18e21a202d5)
A multitude of tents are available—everything from simple A-frames to complex geodesic domes. When selecting a tent, consider the following:

The size of your group and how many people each tent sleeps.
Freestanding tents are generally preferred over nonfreestanding tents. A freestanding tent has a pole arrangement that maintains the tent’s functional shape without the need for guylines. However, in windy conditions nothing is really freestanding, so all tents come with guylines and you should be prepared to stake the tent down and stake the sides out.
Single-wall Tent versus Double-wall Tent. Most tents use a rain fly—an outer waterproof layer that is separated from a breathable layer beneath. This double-wall system allows moisture inside the tent to pass through the breathable layer and then escape, reducing condensation in the tent while the waterproof layer overhead keeps rain out. It also helps provide better insulation by increasing the layers of still air. There are also single-walled tents. Some are completely waterproof and rely on ventilation systems to reduce condensation inside the tent. Others are made of waterproof–breathable material. A single-wall tent will be lighter than a comparable double-wall tent. Single-wall nonbreathable tents are prone to interior condensation.
Examine the floor space of the tent and the usable internal volume. Dome-style or arch-style tents typically have greater usable overhead space than A-frame tents.
What season(s) the tents are designed for. Summer tents are double-walled tents with much of the inner breathable layer being mosquito netting. They are lightweight and allow for lots of ventilation in hot weather. Three-season tents do well in three-season conditions but are not sturdy enough to take heavy snow loads. Convertible tents are four-season tents where you can leave off some poles to make the tent lighter. Four-Season tents have stronger poles and are designed to be able to withstand snow loading. They can also be used as three-season tents but weigh more.
Fastpack tents have a tent fly that can be rigged with the poles and attached to a tent footprint as a floor, leaving the rest of the tent at home. Basically you are building a tarpaulin and ground sheet with poles. This is a nice feature to look for when buying a tent as it allows you to cut down on weight when you don’t need a full tent.
Tent Tips

Each tent comes with its own set of instructions. Practice how to set up your tent before your trip so you can do it in the dark, in bad weather, or in bad weather in the dark. I set up mine at home the first time to get to know the tent, then try to do it outside at night with a headlamp.
Make sure you bring pole splints or extra poles with you in case a pole breaks.
Make sure that you have the right tent stakes for your environment. Ever try to hammer one of those narrow wire tent stakes into rocky soil and watch it bend at a right angle? Lightweight/strong steel or titanium stakes are much better than the cheap aluminum ones. In soft surfaces like sand or snow, you will need a stake with a much greater surface area (especially for sand). In snow, you can create a “dead man” by tying your guyline to a branch and then burying the branch in the snow and packing the snow down on top. When the snow sets, the dead man will be solidly fixed. (You may have to chop it out when it’s time to go.) In sand, fill a stuff sack with light bulky items, tie your guyline to it, and bury it.
Use a tent ground sheet, a space blanket, or a tarpaulin to help protect your tent floor from rips and tears (better to put a hole in the cheap tarpaulin than your expensive tent).
Always stake your tent down if you are going to be in windy areas or will be leaving your tent during day excursions.
Avoid cooking in a tent. The material most tents are made of is flammable, and the water vapor from cooking leads to extensive condensation inside the tent. Carbon monoxide gas released from a burning stove in a confined space like a tent can lead to suffocation and death. (See “Carbon Monoxide (#litres_trial_promo),”.)



GOING ULTRALIGHT – SHELTER
If you are going ultralight, the first question is, Do you need a shelter at all? If you are on a trail like the Appalachian Trail designed for through-hikers, there will be shelters at hikeable mileages for the entire trip. Of course, you can’t be sure that you can always make the mileage, so you should carry a basic tarpaulin or bivy sack as an emergency shelter, but you don’t need to carry a full tent.
If you are bringing a shelter, there are a number tarpaulins that weigh under a pound (454 grams) and some superlightweight tarpaulins weighing less than 8 ounces (226 grams). Ultralight tarpaulins are often made of silicon-impregnated nylon (sil-nylon). This is one of those lightweight fabrics that takes care to keep from puncturing or tearing it. There are also ultralight tents from companies like Big Agnes, GOLITE, Mountain Hardware, MSR, and Sierra Designs that weigh under 2 pounds (900 grams).


COOKING EQUIPMENT (#ulink_ceba3201-f429-5ab6-a322-ac705339f223)
Basic cooking gear is listed in the general equipment list on pages (#litres_trial_promo), but here are a few necessary items:

Pots It’s best to bring at least two pots. A pot set that nests is easiest to carry. The pot size depends on the size of your group: for one to three people, use a 1.5-liter and a 2.5-liter pot. For groups of six, try a 2-liter and a 3-liter pot, and for eight or more, go with at least a 2-liter and a 4-liter. Pots should have lids that seal well. Flat lids allow you to build a small fire on top of the lid for baking. Having a rim on the outside of the pot is essential for picking it up with a pot-gripper. Stainless steel pots weigh a little more than aluminum but will last longer. There is a great debate about pots with nonstick coatings. The nonstick coating makes it easier to clean the pots, but you can’t use harsh abrasives to clean them, which eliminates some of the best natural cleaning materials, such as sand.
Frying pan One per trip is usually plenty. Choose your size based on the size of your group (or how big you like your pancakes). Frying pans are generally available in 8-, 10-, and 12-inch models. Using a frying pan with a cover will reduce your cooking times. A pot cover that fits your frying pan saves weight.
Utensils Lexan plastic utensils are basically indestructible. Be careful cleaning them. Harsh abrasives can create scratches that will hold dirt and bacteria.



GOING ULTRALIGHT – COOKING GEAR
Titanium is lighter than either steel or aluminum and just as durable. You can cut down on weight by using titanium cooking pots, cups, fry pans, and utensils. The only drawback is that titanium items are significantly more expensive. For solo hikers, bring only one small pot and lid. A spoon is the only utensil you’ll probably need.


BACKPACKING STOVES (#ulink_4afaa6bf-b8c3-5b47-a86e-7ca2a7c19b8f)
There are three basic types of backpacking stoves based on what they burn: liquid fuel, compressed gas in a canister, and stoves that use solid fuels like a fuel pellet or wood. Most backpackers rely on liquid fuel stoves.

Liquid Fuel Stoves burn Coleman fuel (a.k.a. white gas), kerosene, or alcohol. Pro: Fuel readily available (alcohol and kerosene available worldwide). Con: Require more maintenance. Some stoves don’t simmer well. Alcohol doesn’t burn well at high altitude (over 7,000 feet or 2,133 meters).
Compressed Gas Stoves burn butane, isobutane, or propane. Pro: Easy on and off. Low maintenance. Easy to control temperature. Both the stove and the fuel canister are lighter than liquid fuel stoves. Con: Don’t work as well at colder temperatures. Difficult to tell amount of fuel left. Disposal of pressurized canister. Butane doesn’t burn well at high altitude (over 7,000 feet or 2,133 meters).
Solid Fuel Stoves burn flammable pellets or wood. Pro: Easy on and off. Practically zero maintenance. Con: Pretty much either off or on, hard to control temperature. Small, hard to use for large group cooking.
How Petrol/Kerosene Liquid-Fuel Stoves Work
The fuel is stored in a separate tank. In most cases, this tank uses a pump to help pressurize the stove. The tank should be filled only to the ¾ point, leaving some air in the tank. The pump forces air through a one-way valve into the tank, increasing the pressure inside. Opening the fuel flow valve allows the pressurized liquid fuel to flow from the tank through the fuel line to the generator tube that passes over the stove burner and back to the base of the stove, where it comes out a small opening called the jet and into the priming cup. Initially, vent only a small amount of fuel into the priming cup, then shut off the fuel flow valve. When you light this small amount of fuel, it will heat up the generator tube. This process is known as “priming the stove.” It can also be accomplished by using a separate priming source such as alcohol or priming paste. Once the generator tube is hot, the fuel flow valve can be opened and the stove burner lit. The pressurized fuel from the tank flows through the heated generator tube, where it is vaporized. The fuel that now flows through the jet is vapor. It strikes the flame spreader on the burner and ignites. The flame spreader redirects the flame from a single, vertical “candle” flame to a wider flame for more efficient heating. When the stove is properly primed, you should see a blue flame similar to that on a gas range. If the flame is yellow or orange, it means that the fuel is not being completely vaporized in the generator. As the generator heats up further, it may begin to run properly, or you may have to turn off the stove and reprime it. (See page (#litres_trial_promo) for detailed sample instructions.)
Lighting Other Stoves

Alcohol Stoves Alcohol stoves don’t require any priming. Because alcohol doesn’t have the explosive combustible properties of petrol, it doesn’t need to be vaporized in order to burn. You just pour the alcohol into the burner container and light it. You can burn either denatured alcohol or grain alcohol (ethanol). In cold temperatures you may have to warm up the alcohol (by putting it next to your body) before lighting.
Compressed Gas Stoves The fuel canister has a screw attachment on the top. The stove burner either screws directly onto the top of the canister or the burner sits on the ground off to the side and there is a flexible fuel tube that runs from the burner to the fitting on the canister. Once the canister is connected you simply turn the fuel knob to ON and light the stove.
Solid Fuel Stoves This varies from stove to stove depending on the type of solid fuel. With a pellet stove like the Esbit, the fuel pellets are flammable. You insert the pellet into the stove and light it. The pellets will light even when cold or wet.
Stove Safety Guidelines

Know how to operate a stove properly before you light it.
Make sure your stove has enough fuel before you light it.
When cooking on a stove, always work from the side where the on/off control is located. Never reach over the stove to work on it or put your face or body directly over the burner.
Do not overfill a liquid fuel stove.
A windscreen will help the stove work more efficiently and save fuel as well as keep the flame from being blown out.
If using a stove with a separate fuel bottle, make sure that the fuel bottle is designed to hold pressure (such as MSR bottles). Also make sure that the bottle is in good shape. I’ve seen plenty of banged and dented fuel bottles that I just don’t trust to hold pressure. These should not be connected to a stove.
Be careful if a hot stove goes out. Do not relight it until it has cooled down for at least 15 minutes. Priming a hot stove with fuel can result in instantaneous and violent ignition.
Never use a stove inside a tent, snow cave, or other enclosed or poorly ventilated space. Stoves give off carbon monoxide, which could lead to asphyxiation in a poorly ventilated area (see “Carbon Monoxide (#litres_trial_promo),”).
Fuels should always be stored a safe distance from the stove when it is being used. Care should be taken to note the wind direction in relation to the fuel storage area so that fuel fumes cannot reach the flame source or sparks reach the fuel source. Always refill stoves far from any source of flame or heat.
What to Do if Your Stove Catches Fire
I’ve seen a number of models of stoves leak and catch fire. The first thing to do is to back away quickly. The best methods for putting out a stove fire are dousing with liberal amounts of water and dumping sand or dirt on the stove. If none of these is available you can also try tossing an empty pot over the stove. The hope is that lack of oxygen will put out the fire; however, the pot also concentrates the heat, which could cause a more violent ignition before the fire is extinguished.
Be careful with stove fuel and plastic pumps. Make sure that you don’t spill fuel on stoves with plastic pumps. If there is fuel on the outside of the pump while the stove is lit, it can catch fire. A fire on a plastic pump can melt the pump, allowing more fuel to flow out and ignite, a potentially explosive situation.
How Much Fuel to Bring
The amount of fuel you need depends on the size of your group and the type of items on your menu. Cooking at high altitude (see page (#ulink_08ab4e5b-f111-53e0-8b35-d96e6fc77e7d)), boiling water for purification, or melting snow for water will increase your fuel requirements. The following are guidelines for typical three-season trips cooking for breakfast and dinner:
WHITE GAS FUEL GUIDELINES

USING A WHITE GAS STOVE (#ulink_7a6c2d27-8039-514f-948c-e06954e971b4)
Operation
White gas stoves fall into two categories: those where the fuel bottle/pump is integrated with the burner and no assembly is required; and component stoves with a separate burner, pump, and fuel bottle, like the MSR Whisperlite, the Coleman Apex II, and the Primus Omni Fuel. Component stoves need to be assembled before use, and proper assembly is essential for safe stove operation.
Read the product literature that comes with your stove carefully for the latest instructions and information on how to assemble and use your stove properly. The following instructions are representative of component stoves and are based on MSR stove instructions with permission of MSR. Always follow the instructions that came with your stove, as this information may not be the most current.
Assembling the Stove

1 Fill an MSR Fuel Bottle to the marked Fill Line. Use only MSR fuel bottles. Non-MSR fuel bottles may result in fuel leakage and/or separation from the Pump. Fuel may ignite, possibly resulting in injury or death. (Make sure the bottle is not dented. Small holes can cause pressure loss or fuel leaks.)
2 When you open a fuel bottle the contents may be under pressure, so hold it away from you and others as you unscrew the cap so that fuel doesn’t spurt into your face.
3 Screw the Pump snugly into the Fuel Bottle. Make sure the Control Valve is all the way in the OFF (–) position.
4 Pump the Plunger until firm resistance is felt, 15 to 20 strokes if the Fuel Bottle is full, 40 to 55 pump strokes if the bottle is half full.
5  Check for any leaking fuel at any of the O-ring seals on the pump. Don’t light the stove if you see fuel leaks.
6 Lubricate the end of the fuel line with saliva or oil and insert the Fuel Line into the hole in the pump.
7 Snap the Catch Arm securely into the slot on the Pump. Failure to lock the catch arm can result in the fuel line and fuel tank detaching from the stove during operation, an extremely hazardous condition. I always teach “click and lock, ready to rock.” Don’t light the stove until the catch arm locks into place with a click.
8 Snap the pot support legs into place and put the stove on a suitable flat, insulated surface before lighting.


MSR Whisperlite White Gas Stove with Fuel Bottle, Pump, and Burner(Image courtesy of Mountain Safety Research)
Operating the Stove
Before lighting the stove make sure that:

The stove assembly has no fuel leaks.
The catch arm is locked and stove is properly assembled.
The area is clear of flammable material and spilled fuel.
Priming
The stove must be preheated or “primed” in order to operate properly. Insufficient preheating may result in flare-ups or poor performance.

1 Open the Control Valve and allow approximately 1 teaspoon of fuel to flow through the jet opening in the burner into the priming cup at the base of the burner. (Alcohol may be used as an alternate priming fuel to reduce soot buildup from the preheat process.) Note: Do not overprime. Do not fill the priming cup with fuel. Only a small amount of fuel is needed. Excess fuel can result in a dangerous flare-up.
2 Turn the Control Valve off.
3 Check for any leaks at the Control Valve, Pump, Jet, and Fuel Line. If leaks are found, do not use the stove.
4 Light the Priming Fuel.
5 Place the Windscreen around the stove. Make sure the pump and fuel bottle are kept outside the windscreen.
Turning the Stove On

1 When the preheating fuel has burned to a small flame or gone out completely, open the Control Valve gradually and light the stove at the burner. You should get a steady blue flame.
2 If the stove:• Goes out, turn the Control Valve off. Wait for the stove to cool and return to the “priming” step.• Burns with erratic yellow flame when you first start it, close the Control Valve and allow the stove to preheat longer. (Priming with a separate fuel source like a small squeeze bottle of alcohol is helpful here.)• Burns intermittently with yellow and blue flames, turn the Control Valve down but not off until the stove burns with a steady blue flame, then slowly turn the Control Valve up.
3 While the stove is in operation periodically pump the Plunger 3 to 5 strokes as needed to keep enough pressure in the Fuel Bottle.
Turning the Stove Off

1 Close Control Valve firmly. The flame will burn for 1 to 2 minutes as excess fuel in the fuel line is exhausted. Wait for the stove to cool before disassembling.
2 To remove the burner, unlock the Catch Arm, making sure that you are away from heat, sparks, or flame, and remove the Fuel Line from the Pump.
3 Keep the Pump assembled in the Fuel Bottle or, to be sure the Control Valve does not open by mistake, remove the Pump and replace it with the Fuel Bottle Cap. The fuel bottle will be under pressure, so hold it away from you and others as you open it.
LIGHTWEIGHT/ULTRALIGHT CARTRIDGE STOVES (#ulink_46eeab8e-cc0c-596e-b11e-330294a625f2)
Cartridge stoves and fuel weigh less than typical white gas stoves. There are a number of models that are light enough to creep into the ultralight category:

MSR Pocket Rocket For those times when you want a lightweight stove for cooking for larger groups, the MSR Pocket Rocket is one of the lightest cartridge stoves available. It sets up quickly and boils a quart/liter (1000 milliliters) of water in under 3.5 minutes.
JetBoil The JetBoil is an innovative approach to a lightweight cooking system. It merges a canister stove and burner with an integrated insulated cooking mug so you leave your pots behind. Unlike other canister stoves it has its own integrated windscreen and a built-in heat exchanger that captures heat typically lost with other stoves. This makes the unit more fuel efficient per canister of fuel. It boils 2 cups (473 milliliters) of water in 2 minutes.



GOING ULTRALIGHT – STOVES
Long-distance hikers have come up with the lightest weight stoves. A number of these stoves simplify the stove to its most basic element—the burner—losing the fuel bottle, pump, and fuel line. With this simplicity comes some loss of functionality. Don’t expect these stoves to let you control the flame to a low simmer; they are pretty much on-and-off stoves, whose main purpose is to do one thing: boil water. Some stoves provide a metal shield to move over the flame to block some of the heat as the “simmer control.” Here are some of the ultralight options:
Alcohol Stoves There are a number of commercial alcohol stoves on the market. The Trangia Stove from Sweden is one example and is generally sold as a stove/pot system (www.trangia.com). One of the benefits of the stove is its simplicity. It consists of a burner cup that fits inside a windscreen. Fill the burner with alcohol, assemble the stove, and light. Pro: Lightweight. No complicated parts to break or fuel lines that clog. Alcohol is available around the world as a fuel. Con: Not easy to adjust temperature. Limited burn time.
Aluminum Can Stoves—Alcohol Fuel These lightweight stoves are designed for small cooking loads—1 to 4 cups of water. It’s a boil-water-only stove. The stove is made from two aluminum cans, a smaller 12-ounce can soldered inside a larger 14-ounce can. These stoves are designed to burn alcohol only. You don’t get any lighter than this. You can find instructions for how to build this stove at the PCTHiker Web Site (www.pcthiker.com).
Esbit Tablet Stoves The Esbit stove is a folding steel stove. When opened there is space for a small flammable stove tablet about the size of a boxes of matches. Light the pellet and place it in the stove. Like other ultralight stoves it has only two cooking levels, on and off. One tablet will bring 1 pint of water (473 milliliters) to a rolling boil in under 8 minutes. You typically get 12 to 15 minutes of usable burn time per tablet. The Esbit Wing Stove is an even simpler, more compact, and lighter weight version.
Sierra Stove This stove burns twigs, bark, pine cones, and other wood as well as charcoal and other solid fuels. It has an adjustable speed fan that creates a forced ventilation system providing more efficient burning. It boils a quart/liter of water in about 4 minutes (www.zzstove.com).


MISCELLANEOUS GEAR (#ulink_b49e5517-58b8-53db-9d8c-97f0a6d3e6d2)
We all have our favorite little things that we bring on the trail. Here are a few gadgets you might want to consider on your next trip:

LED headlamp One of my most indispensable items on any trip. An LED headlamp is lightweight, is easier to use in camp than a flashlight, and will go for hundreds of hours on a few batteries.
Good trowel When digging catholes, a strong lightweight metal trowel is a real help. It’s also good for building a mound fire. Forget the cheap plastic ones—they snap the first time you hit a rock.
Multitool For years it was a Swiss Army knife, but that’s now been replaced with a lightweight multitool. These have the advantage of having other tools like a pair of pliers useful for fixing stoves and packs. If you are being weight-conscious, the little multitools weigh much less and offer almost as much as the big ones do.
Camp chair I admit it, it’s a bit of a luxury, but I really like pulling out my Crazy Creek chair at the end of the day and relaxing with a cup of tea and a good book. As a feeble attempt to justify the added weight, you can use the chair for a sleeping pad, and the chair itself makes a good leg splint (www.crazycreek.com).
Mosquito Netting Hat This might be necessary if hiking in northern latitudes in spring and summer. Combined with a good wide-brimmed sun/rain hat, this will keep the bugs and the DEET out of your face.
Portable Power If your trip requires you to bring electronic gear with you (satellite phone, digital camera, PDA, laptop), you need to have power. The Brunton SolarRoll is a collapsible solar power cell. It weighs 17 ounces and can produce 14 watts of power—enough to juice up your PDA, mobile phone, or digital camera. It can also charge larger items like laptop computers (www.brunton.com).
TECHNOLOGY IN THE WILDERNESS (#ulink_bfc693b9-8d39-551e-95e5-0da339a2f554)
Technology is all around us, and more and more technology is coming into outdoor pursuits. In a broad sense we all use technology outdoors—everything from high-tech clothing to LED headlamps, pocket stoves, waterproof-breathable rain gear, internal-frame backpacks, and ultralight tents.
For many people, the word technology really refers to taking electronic gadgets into the outdoors. Some view this as an intrusion on the experience of the wilderness; others feel it is perfectly appropriate. If you choose to bring a music or DVD player, that’s your personal choice. You should just be aware that the people in the next campsite may not be at all interested in hearing your device, so bring headphones.
Outside of entertainment devices there are devices designed to help you on your wilderness experience. Here are some of the things out there:

Mobile phones or satellite phones Mobile phones are now ubiquitous, so it’s no surprise that people take them along on hiking trips. A mobile phone or a satellite phone can be a big help in an emergency situation, allowing you to contact help almost immediately (if you have reception). There is a great deal of discussion in outdoor programs about the use of mobile phones, satellite phones, and radios. Some people feel that these are essential hiking safety devices, some feel that they intrude on the experience of being in the wilderness, and others feel they are mistakenly used as a crutch. They can be useful tools in an emergency situation. However, it is important to recognize that none of these communication technologies works in every location and therefore shouldn’t be relied upon completely. A lot of people assume that satellite phones work everywhere. Not true—sat phones require a clear view of the sky in order to establish a connection with a satellite. You often can’t make a connection in deep forests, canyons, deep gorges, or other locations. And any electronic device can run out of power or break, so never rely on it in place of first-aid training, knowledge of the area, and a good trip plan. If you carry a phone or a radio, don’t delude yourself that help is only a phone call away. Even with a phone, it still may take rescue personnel hours or even days to get to you, so you must be prepared to deal with the situation. At a conference on wilderness safety someone told the story of a fellow who went hiking with his mobile phone. He got lost and called the rangers to tell him where to go. They asked him what landmarks were nearby, and there weren’t any obvious ones. It turned out he had no map or compass and had absolutely no idea where he was. He assumed that because he had a mobile phone, all he had to do was call and ask for directions. But the rangers couldn’t figure out where he was or how to help him find his way back. At the same time hikers and mountaineers have been seriously injured and called for help on a mobile phone. Without the phone to speed the rescue people would have died.
Global Positioning System (GPS) Receivers GPS receivers use satellites to identify your exact position. They can be a great help in planning your route, keeping track of your location, and navigating from place to place. Even so, a GPS is not a replacement for knowing how to use a map and compass. For more on GPS, see page (#litres_trial_promo).
Personal Radios Personal radios using the FRS or GMRS have become increasingly popular when hiking. They can be helpful for larger groups who split up. FRS radios have a range of about 1/2 mile (0.8 kilometer), while GMRS have ranges up to 5 miles (8 kilometers).
Personal Locater Beacons (PLBs) Personal Locator Beacons are another satellite technology. This is a land-based version of rescue beacons that have been in use by mariners for some time. When activated the beacon sends an emergency signal to a satellite along with your exact position. This is not a phone, so all the signal means is “I have an emergency.” All PLBs must be registered so the responding agency knows who initiated the call (in part to discourage false activations). If a signal is received, the Rescue Coordination Center telephones the beacon’s owner and/or emergency contact to check to see if the beacon going off is a false alarm. If it cannot be determined that the signal is a false alert, SAR teams are dispatched to locate the person in distress. Pushing the button means mobilizing a potentially huge rescue effort, so it had better be a real emergency. There are certainly real uses for these devices, particularly for people who travel in remote parts of the world.
The ongoing debate about the use of these types of technology when hiking is that carrying these devices creates a false sense of security, the “Hey, if something goes wrong we just use the Satellite Phone, PLB, GPS, etc.” approach. Some people are justifiably concerned that people may go into wilderness areas without sufficient experience because they assume they can always get rescued, or don’t take a map because they have a GPS receiver. What’s important to remember is that these are just tools and have limitations. They get left in camp, batteries die, somebody steps on the thing or drops it off a cliff. If you don’t have it or it doesn’t work, you’d better have the skills to handle the situation. These devices should be used as an adjunct for emergency assistance or navigation, not as a replacement for sound training and good judgment.


CHAPTER 3 (#ulink_2660cff3-ad4e-5d1f-8e9d-c91c53079b37)
Cooking and Nutrition (#ulink_2660cff3-ad4e-5d1f-8e9d-c91c53079b37)
ENERGY AND NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS (#ulink_40b2440d-5dbf-5778-b436-1caff0e342c2)
Caloric Requirements (#ulink_7d03fbbb-f0ec-56fc-9cba-a8d0cde078c2)
Food Sources (#ulink_9deee88c-e5a8-5223-ba72-63f81c2e798f)
BASIC FLUID RECOMMENDATIONS (#ulink_a3a6c940-c6a0-5c1c-8e6c-f207f83b354d)
MENU PLANNING (#ulink_9d3345d4-adcd-5c27-9c16-e24cce9330e1)
How Long are You Going to be Out? (#ulink_8dc0604b-2fce-595a-9458-5a0c68e478cb)
Ease of Preparation (#ulink_73db1634-d61f-5294-a774-71e0fc8c4da8)
Weight (#ulink_eacd9545-73d6-5de0-9fca-7cf3a397e196)
Packaging/Repackaging (#ulink_94c2d733-61d3-5eaf-9504-5709cb2da28b)
Spoilage (#ulink_f9250c35-2915-5b3a-a266-e4cffc23a924)
Eating on the Trail (#ulink_0081afa0-41bd-5f89-ad4b-3e9dc13ee289)
GENERAL COOKING GUIDELINES, INGREDIENTS, AND RECIPES (#ulink_0afc073f-0956-5f39-a6a8-0830d94c9a46)
Sample Recipes (#ulink_f1dba099-967c-574b-b791-3e0985c77851)
OUTDOOR BAKING (#ulink_5968ff72-a7c7-5f5e-9e62-f216369ea948)
FOOD EQUIVALENTS (#ulink_38adbcb4-0fa3-5f22-8fc7-2b9f12b73a36)
MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENTS (#ulink_8ecd459f-eae2-5be9-9cbb-c0215724d54a)


Food can be one of the most important and complicated elements to plan for a trip. You have to be aware of nutritional requirements, individual dietary needs, and amounts required to feed the entire group. Plus, the food should be appetizing—there is nothing better than a delicious hot meal to bolster morale after a long, hard day of hiking, and nothing worse than trying to keep up your strength while staring into a cup of disgusting mush. Seasoned through-hikers may be more concerned with weight than taste or variety, but it can be difficult to get people, particularly inexperienced backpackers, to eat a meal that doesn’t taste good.
ENERGY AND NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS (#ulink_70576714-5947-5533-93ec-dcf06ed3af4a)
Good nutrition is just as important, if not more so, in the outdoors as it is at home. Food supplies energy to your body to fuel your physical activity and keep you warm. Food also provides essential nutrients that your body cannot produce: vitamins, minerals, certain amino acids, and certain fatty acids. The amount of energy the body takes in from food is measured in units of heat energy called calories. When planning a menu for a trip, it is important that the foods be high in calories in order to meet these requirements.
CALORIC REQUIREMENTS (#ulink_99a8b774-fb67-5807-b8df-0cbfea594cdc)
Below are the general ranges for calories required to maintain good health, and what you will typically need to carry. Keep in mind that the food weights are averages, since carrying only dehydrated foods, for example, would mean carrying less weight. Also, at higher altitudes the caloric requirements per day increase.

FOOD SOURCES (#ulink_2ccdf479-e042-5428-a0dd-4a39d73910ee)
Carbohydrates (4 calories/gram, energy released quickly) regularly make up about 50 percent of a person’s daily caloric intake. For hiking trips you may need to increase this to 70 percent of the daily caloric intake. Starches and sugars provide both quick energy and longer-term fuel. Processing and refining can reduce the nutritional value of carbohydrates, so it is best to use whole grains, raw sugar, and other unprocessed foods in your menu. Simple carbohydrates (sugars such as trail snacks or sweets) are broken down very quickly by the body for quick energy release, and complex carbohydrates (such as pasta) release energy more slowly.
Fats (9 calories/gram, energy released slowly) are another important source of energy when hiking. It is recommended that about 25 percent of your daily intake be fats (during the winter this should increase to about 40 percent). Fats take longer to break down than carbohydrates and thus are a better source of long-term energy. For example, adding a spoonful of butter or margarine to a cup of hot chocolate will increase the caloric rating and the length of time the energy is released.
Proteins (4 calories/gram, energy released slowly) are an essential part of any diet. Proteins are the essential building blocks of all tissue. Each protein in the body is made up of twenty-two amino acids. Fourteen of these amino acids are produced in the body, and the other eight, known as the “essential amino acids,” are not. Both types are essential to a complete diet. Foods such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and milk products are called “complete proteins” since they contain all eight essential amino acids. However, there are limitations to carrying fresh meats, poultry, and eggs due to weight or spoilage. Canned or vacuum-sealed pouches of fish or precooked chicken can be carried. Soybeans and soy products are also complete proteins.
Foods such as beans, lentils, peanuts, cereals, vegetables, and fruit are incomplete proteins since each of them doesn’t contain all eight amino acids. However, by using proper combinations, an outdoors menu can be planned that allows you to get all eight amino acids daily. An easy way to remember this is using the “Nutritional N” to create food combinations. The N contains four elements: dairy, grains, legumes, and seeds. Any two adjacent food groups in the N, when combined, provide complete protein.

Dairy Cheese, milk, yogurt
Grains Breads, crackers, pasta, granola and other cereals, rice, couscous, bulgur, bran, potatoes, corn, oats
Legumes Beans, peas, lentils, peanuts, tofu
Seeds Sunflower, sesame
The phrase “Don’t Get Love Sick” (Dairy, Grains, Legumes, Seeds) may help you remember the four groups and the order in which they form the nutritional N. Just string the four elements together in alphabetical order. A combination of any two consecutive initial letters of the phrase will provide complete proteins. Dairy and Grains (D & G), for instance, will form a complete protein together, whereas dairy and legumes will not. The other two complete protein combinations are Grains and Legumes (G & L) or Legumes and Seeds (L & S).


Complete Protein Combinations
Sample Complete Protein Combinations

Dairy (or eggs) and grains Macaroni and cheese; cheese and crackers; pasta with Parmesan cheese; milk and cereal.
Grains and legumes Rice and beans; refried beans and flour tortillas; peanut butter and bread; rice or bread and tofu.
Legumes and seeds Peanuts and sunflower seeds in gorp (see page (#ulink_5bbe0aef-c6f1-5889-a153-bf478c3aade3)).
BASIC FLUID RECOMMENDATIONS (#ulink_4d3b8f9b-217c-5c5c-9ca8-8b340255ee90)
Water is an essential part of personal nutrition on the trail. It aids digestion, regulates body temperature, keeps cells healthy, and carries waste from the body. Dehydration leads to headaches, fatigue, and irritability. Mild dehydration is often easily relieved by drinking half a quart (
/
liter) or more of water. Remember that these general recommendations are for backpacking in temperate forest conditions. You may need to increase your fluid intake based on your own metabolic needs, physical condition, medical condition, age, sex, or different weather conditions (such as high temperature and humidity), high altitude, or in specific ecosystems (such as desert climates).



TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Gorp Everyone has his or her own favorite recipes for “gorp,” which stands for Good Old Raisins and Peanuts. I start with equal parts raisins and peanuts and then add a quick sugar source. You can increase the variety of the mix by adding smaller amounts of different sugar sources. When using chocolate, consider the melting factor. Also, if you use items like sunflower seeds that are smaller than most of the other things in your mix they will eventually filter down to the bottom of the bag, so be prepared on the last day to find a bag full of sunflower seeds. Here are some items to consider: dried papaya, pineapple, apples, apricots, dates, banana chips, mango, or cranberries (Craisins); coconut; almonds; cashews; brazil nuts; peanuts; chocolate, butterscotch, or carob chips; chocolate malt balls; M&M’s; chocolate-covered raisins, peanuts, or almonds; yogurt-covered raisins, peanuts, or almonds; sunflower seeds; rice crackers; dried green peas; pretzels; sesame stix. Be inventive!
Water is always being lost by the body through the “—tions”: respiration, perspiration, urination, and defecation. Strenuous activities like back-packing result in increased water loss. Dehydration is one of the most preventable hiking problems but also one of the most ignored. I’ve seen people avoid drinking for all sorts of reasons: it was too much trouble to get the water bottle out of their pack or they didn’t want to have to urinate. The bottom line is, stay hydrated. Failure to stay adequately hydrated can lead to serious and even life-threatening conditions. (See “Fluid Balance (#litres_trial_promo),” “Heat-Related Illnesses (#litres_trial_promo),” “Hypothermia (#litres_trial_promo),” “Hyponatremia (#litres_trial_promo),”.)
Keep your water bottles handy and keep drinking all day long. Drink 16+ ounces (500 milliliters) before starting to hike and then 10 to 12 ounces (200 to 300 milliliters) every 20 to 30 minutes while hiking. It is easier on your body to handle small amounts of water spread out rather than sucking down a whole quart at once. The sensation of thirst comes after the body is already low on fluid, so don’t wait until you are thirsty to drink. If your mucus membranes are dry (lips and mouth), then you are low on fluids. The best way to tell if you are adequately hydrated is to check your urine output. It should be “copious and clear.”
Keep your daily route and the availability of water in mind when you are planning your menu. If water will be scarce, you need to plan meals that do not require lots of water for cooking or rehydrating.

Remember that these are general recommendations only. You may have different fluid requirements based on your own metabolic needs, physical condition, medical condition, age, sex (e.g., during her menstrual period, a woman will need more fluid), or different weather conditions.



TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Hydration gear If your water bottle is buried in your pack there’s a good chance you won’t stop to get to it as often as you need to stay properly hydrated. There are a number of water bladders, like the Camelback and the Platypus, that use a collapsible plastic bag in a fabric liner along with a drinking tube. You can place the carrier in your pack, hang the tube on your shoulder strap, and drink as you hike. I find I stay much better hydrated with a water bladder.
MENU PLANNING (#ulink_93bda9e7-f313-552c-8c02-f23f5463f144)
When planning food for a backpacking trip, you need to decide if cooking is a group task or a personal task. A group menu is where everyone in the group plans centralized meals and cooks and eats together versus each person cooking on his or her own. Either way there are two approaches to planning meals that can be taken. The first is a menu planned meal-by-meal (breakfast on day 1 is this, dinner is that); the second is a ration system in which you bring lots of different ingredients (pasta, rice, dried veggies, etc.) and the group creates its own menu on-the-fly. On short trips (two to six days), a meal-by-meal menu often works best. The ration approach is useful on longer trips (seven to ten+ days), as it provides room for greater flexibility and creativity. Proper menu planning means less weight to carry, less wasted food, and less food waste to pack out. Below are some important things to think about when planning your menu.
HOW LONG ARE YOU GOING TO BE OUT? (#ulink_f19f5c35-ce73-58ae-bf23-d993991f4a62)
The length of your trip is essential when planning a menu. You need to bring enough food to feed everyone, but you don’t want to carry too much heavy food. For any trip, you can start with a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables, which will typically last several days.

Less than a week Carry any type of fresh food that won’t spoil. At the beginning of a trip if weight is not an issue you can freeze pre-cooked foods and take them with you.
Seven to ten days Add some dehydrated or freeze-dried foods to cut down on weight.
Greater than ten days Increase the proportion of dehydrated or freeze-dried foods, or arrange for food resupply.
On longer expeditions, the types of foods you can carry become more limited. You may need to supplement your diet with vitamins and minerals to make up for nutrients that you may not be getting.
EASE OF PREPARATION (#ulink_e46f6b00-9c6c-5b94-b2ba-2c378b2524fd)
One of the things to think about in your menu planning is how you are going to cook. Are you bringing a stove, cooking on fires, or not cooking at all? If you have a stove, is it designed for extended cooking, like the MSR Whisperlite, or just to boil a small amount of water, like the Ezbit stove or the JetBoil? If you are going ultralight and have a simple “boil a cup of water” stove, then you are limited in the types of food you can cook (more prepackaged things like instant oatmeal, ramen noodles, and good old mac ’n’ cheese). Knowing how you are going to cook is a key factor in deciding what foods you are going to bring.
The one-pot meal approach is used by lots of hiking travelers. By planning your meal around the ability to cook it in one pot you can decrease cooking time and reduce the amount of fuel needed, another important weight factor for you ultralighters.
You can be much more creative with a multipot meal, but it also may require multiple stoves. Also, think about the activities of the trip. For example, on a winter camping trip where you may be having to melt snow for water, you may need a lot of your fuel and time for that task, so a quicker one-pot meal may be best.
WEIGHT (#ulink_c1907262-d64d-5dd6-8e80-53141d437d3c)
You understand what a good diet is and how many calories each person is going to need. But how are you going to carry all that? For three-season back-packing, assume that each person needs about 2 pounds (0.9 kilograms) of food per day (this increases in winter). You need to plan your menu with the weight of the food in mind. On some trips, like a rafting trip, weight may not be an issue. Here are a few things to keep in mind:

Some foods are lighter than others, and packaging, especially cans, adds weight.
Fresh foods, such as fruit or vegetables, are heavy because they contain water, but they provide a welcome treat on the trail.
You can save weight by eliminating the water carried in foods. For example, carry dried beans instead of canned beans, which contain water. Beans, chickpeas, and black-eyed peas require soaking. You can rehydrate them on the trail by placing them in a full water bottle overnight. Once soaked they will be rehydrated and ready to cook. (This also decreases the cooking time and saves stove fuel.) If you plan to rehydrate, think about water availability on your route. The other way to rehydrate beans is to place them in water, boil them for two to three minutes, and then let them soak for at least an hour. The longer the beans soak, the softer they get (but don’t soak more than 24 hours).




TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Freeze-dried foods Cooked or fresh food is frozen and then the water is allowed to sublimate off. This removes about 99 percent of the water and leaves most of the nutritional value.
Dehydrated foods Dehydration is a process using heat to evaporate water slowly. About 90 percent of the water is removed during the dehydration process. Some nutrients are also lost. Dehydrated foods can take longer to cook, which adds weight back into your pack in terms of extra stove fuel.
Both freeze-dried and dehydrated foods save on weight but require significant amounts of water to rehydrate. In situations where water is limited, these foods may be a problem. Whenever you are thinking of packing prepared freeze-dried or dehydrated foods, try them out at home first. You want to know that you will like the taste and know how much it actually makes. It may say it feeds four, but after a long day of hiking, it might only feed three.

Plan your meals to use the heaviest items first and then move to lighter-weight items at the end. This way you will quickly reduce the amount of weight you will be carrying.
You can feed yourself pretty cheaply on the trail. Dried and freeze-dried foods are lightweight, but you pay more for someone to do the processing. If you have the time, you can dehydrate foods yourself with a food drier.
PACKAGING/REPACKAGING (#ulink_0e433ea2-aa3c-51f2-a588-bd4bf7aae89f)
This is important in terms of weight and minimal impact. (See “Leave No Trace Hiking and Camping (#litres_trial_promo).”) Glass, cans, and foils should be avoided as much as possible since they add weight and must be packed out. Glass containers are obviously unwise to carry in a backpack, unless, for example, you want to scrape the honey off the inside of your pack. A simple way to repackage any food is to use sealable plastic bags such as Ziploc or plastic bags tied with loose knots at the top. Double-bagging is important with powders and grains to prevent leakage if one bag tears. Spices often can be purchased in small plastic containers. Whenever possible, bag all the contents of a meal together and label it “Lunch Day 2,” “Dinner Day 3,” etc. Another approach is to put food items in separate stuff sacks—breakfast, lunch, and dinner.
Leave No Trace camping begins at the store. The idea is to be environmentally conscious when buying items by evaluating the packaging of different foods and brands.

Reduce the amount of packaging you buy by buying in bulk. Choose items that are bulk packaged rather than individually wrapped. Many local supermarkets and health food stores sell items in bulk, which you can repack on your own. This can also reduce your costs.
Recycle all cardboard, glass, and other original packaging when you repack your food. Look for food brands with recyclable packaging.
Reuse After a trip, plastic bags that have no holes can be washed out and reused. Other containers are reusable, too (e.g., a plastic peanut butter jar). Tupperware or other plastic containers can be reused.
SPOILAGE (#ulink_cde10e6b-281c-57fb-bbd8-566522c0a644)
On longer trips, and even short trips in hot weather, it is usually not possible to carry fresh foods or meats for very long because of spoilage. Here are some guidelines for how long different foods will keep:
Fruits and Vegetables

Fruits stay fresh for different lengths of time. Harder fruits like apples, oranges, and tangerines are best. If you buy softer fruits like pears, peaches, or nectarines, buy them before they ripen and let them ripen on the trail. Avoid putting easily smushed fruits like bananas in your pack unless you are very brave. Think about using items that are in season or grown locally over items that are brought in from far away. Reducing the impact of what we buy and where it comes from is another part of the Leave No Trace ethic.
Carrots, potatoes, garlic, onions, and other root vegetables can keep for two to three weeks.
Dried fruits last for months.
Cheeses and Dairy
Note: The ability of cheese to keep unrefrigerated for extended periods of time is primarily based on the moisture content of the cheese. Any cheese can be out for a few hours, but only some cheeses are appropriate for multiday trips.

Grated and grating cheeses (moisture content 34 percent or less) Parmesan and Romano do not need refrigeration.
Hard cheeses (moisture content 36 to 43 percent) Cheddar, Colby, and Swiss can go without refrigeration for up to a week. Over time, high temperatures result in oiling off of liquefied milk fat. Though unsightly, this is not a spoilage problem. Waxed bricks or wheels hold up best.
Semisoft cheeses (moisture content 44 to 52 percent) Brie, Camembert, blue cheese, Monterey Jack, and Muenster should be refrigerated.
Soft cheeses (moisture content greater than 50 percent) Cream cheese, ricotta, and cottage cheese require refrigeration for long-term storage.
Milk Most people take powdered milk to conserve weight. UHT (ultra-high-temperature pasteurized) milk such as Parmalat can be carried for months unopened without refrigeration. Once opened, the UHT milk must be refrigerated, but if you use it up at one meal, it’s fine.
Clarified butter Butter with the milk solids removed. It will last up to three weeks unrefrigerated.
Margarine/oils Famous (or infamous) Squeeze Parkay lasts for several weeks unrefrigerated. Or you can bring olive, sesame, or other oils to cook with instead of butter or margarine.
Meats

Hard salami, pepperoni, smoked meats, and jerky all last for weeks without refrigeration.
Canned meats and fish last “almost” forever.
Eggs

It used to be suggested that eggs could be carried unrefrigerated on trips if kept in water. Because of increases in Salmonella bacteria in chickens and the need for eggs to be cooked completely to kill the bacteria, this is no longer recommended.




TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
Cook before you go A number of delicious meals or add-ons can be made ahead of time and packed with you. Fresh breads, biscuits, muffins, and deserts can add a lot to a trip. Cold salads such as bean salad, houmous, and tabouli can also be made ahead of time.
Pre-cook and freeze For special meals early in the trip you can pre-cook meals and freeze them in a plastic container. Seal the container well with tape. The food will slowly melt, but should be fine for the first 24 hours. Reheat on the stove for a quick dinner.
EATING ON THE TRAIL (#ulink_d50dc36f-34ee-5cc7-b35f-6d89ac2af4c1)
Everyone has different preferences for mealtimes. When hiking, you are expending energy all the time, so you constantly need to replenish that energy. This typically means eating three meals a day. Some people prefer to get up, have a light breakfast, get an early start, and then stop for a bigger meal at midday. Whatever your preference, you should have an ample supply of water and snacks during the day to keep up your energy level. Remember that more falls and injuries take place on hiking trips around 11:00 A.M. and again at 3:00 P.M. than at any other time because blood sugar is low and people are dehydrated. Plan snacks and rest breaks around these times. (See “Safety and Emergency Procedures (#litres_trial_promo).”)
It is also important to take into consideration the different eating habits of the group members. There may be people with food allergies, vegetarians, and those who keep kosher. It is also important to plan a variety of foods, especially for longer trips. Asking trip members about specific dietary needs before shopping will help make everyone on the trip feel included. Finally, a tip for cooking for people with particular dietary restrictions: cook whatever food cannot be eaten by everyone separately. Put it aside in a separate dish for people to add to their own plates.
GENERAL COOKING GUIDELINES, INGREDIENTS, AND RECIPES (#ulink_f5444474-38b8-59b2-a0db-585f749e4585)

Hygiene Before anyone handles food, make sure the person washes his or her hands thoroughly (see “Keeping Clean on the Trail (#ulink_96a22810-b342-5426-9650-848008dd9bf4),”).
Avoid Burning Your Meals Cooking on a backpacking stove is a challenging affair, since some stoves don’t simmer well and none offers the same control as a kitchen stove. Start with a clean pot to avoid burning last night’s dinner. Turn the stove on full only when you are boiling water. Otherwise, turn it down to let the food cook slowly and evenly. It may take longer to cook, but once you burn food in the pot, you’ll taste it the rest of the meal. Check periodically to see if food is sticking to the bottom. If so, turn down the heat or add water. If you are using large pots or frying pans over a small stove burner, you may need to move the pot around frequently to make sure the heat is distributed evenly.
Avoid Overcooking or Undercooking The major cause of overcooking or undercooking is adding ingredients in the wrong order. Start with freeze-dried foods first in cold water and boil for 10 to 15 minutes to re-hydrate. Next add rice or pasta. The last thing to add is thickeners like flour, potato pearls, milk, or cheese.
Spices Spices bring your meal to life. Remember that many sauces, dehydrated soups, and other stocks are already salty. It is best to let people add their own salt when the food is done, rather than oversalt while you’re cooking. Use only a little bit of spice at a time. It takes 5 to 10 minutes for spices to flavor food, so wait and taste before adding more.
Pots If you have extra pots, put water on the stove to boil for hot drinks as soon as you take the dinner pot off. This will also give you hot water for washing.
Leftovers Any solid food left over should be placed in a plastic bag and packed out. Do not bury solid food waste; animals will only dig it up.
Don’t Pack Fuel Near Food Fuel vapors are heavier than air and sink in your pack. They can penetrate plastic bags and contaminate food like trail mix. Food contaminated with fuel is considered a toxic substance and enough of it can make you sick. Carry fuel in an outside pocket of your pack away from food or in the bottom of your pack with the food packed higher up.
Cooking at Altitude At higher altitudes, the air pressure is lower. This allows water to boil at lower temperatures, so you’ll need to plan longer cooking times. For foods that cook in 20 minutes or less at sea level, add 1 minute of cooking time for each 1,000 feet (310 meters) of elevation. For items that take more than 20 minutes at sea level, add 2 minutes of cooking time for each 1,000 feet (310 meters) of elevation. Something that takes 20 minutes to cook at sea level can take twice as long (40 minutes) to cook at 10,000 feet (3,048 meters). This also means that you may need significantly more stove fuel if your trip is at high altitude.

SAMPLE RECIPES (#ulink_b6baa855-454c-5972-9728-a9ff33a8cb09)
To me, cooking is a lot like carpentry—the old adage, “measure twice, cut once” becomes “measure twice, cook once.” Once, when I was on a hiking skiing trip, I read a biscuit recipe too quickly and added too much water. In order to salvage the batter, I had to make enough biscuits to feed a small army for a week. By the end of the trip we were all very tired of eating biscuits. In the sample recipes below, you should adjust the quantities to fit the size (and appetites) of your group. Don’t be afraid to invent your own recipes, or check out some of the excellent hiking cookbooks available (see the Bibliography (#litres_trial_promo)).
Most meals will be one-pot meals. These are often based on pasta, rice, or other grains. Here are the basic cooking directions for pasta and rice:
Pasta Use two parts water to one part pasta. Bring the water to a boil. Add salt (1 teaspoon per quart of water). Add the pasta and boil it gently for 10 to 15 minutes or until done. You can use the drained water for soups or carbo-loaded hot chocolate.
Instant Rice Use equal amounts of rice and water. Bring the water to a boil, add margarine (as desired) and salt (1 teaspoon per quart of water). Stir in the rice. Cover, and remove from heat. Let stand for 5 minutes, fluff with a fork and serve.


HOUMOUS


This chickpea spread is a great energy food full of protein and calories. You can make it before the trip or on the trail and pack it in a Ziploc or Tupperware, where it will easily last a week. It makes a great lunch food on pitta or crackers or a nice appetizer before dinner.
2 (12-ounce) cans chickpeas
2 tablespoons olive oil
6 tablespoons sesame tahini
Juice of 3 lemons
4 garlic cloves, minced
Mash the chickpeas with a fork. Add the olive oil, tahini, and lemon juice. If the mix is too thick, add a tablespoon or two of water. Add the garlic. Mix until smooth. Serve with slices of pitta bread. If you want to carry less weight, bring dry houmous, which can be mixed with water on the trail.
Serves 6


TUNA MELTS


This is a great hot lunch or appetizer for the days when you’re feeling lazy and don’t want to spend a lot of time cooking.
1 tablespoon margarine or oil
6 (10-inch) tortillas or pitta bread
2 (8-ounce) cans/packets tuna fish, drained
1 cup diced Cheddar cheese
Melt the margarine or heat the oil in a frying pan over medium heat. Place a tortilla in the pan and top with a thin layer of the tuna and cheese. Fold in half and cook over medium heat until the cheese is completely melted. Repeat with remaining tortillas and filling.
Serves 6
Note: If you prefer, you can use pitta pockets instead of tortillas. Slice the pocket open before placing in the frying pan, and follow the recipe, closing the pitta when the recipe tells you to fold the tortilla.



TRICKS OF THE TRAIL
What to do with the remains:
Tuna juice Buy tuna packed in water rather than oil. Depending on how you eat the tuna, you may be able to just pour the water into your pot. However, if you are eating tuna straight out of the can for lunch, you should properly dispose of the tuna juice. Pouring it over the tuna on sandwiches is best. Tuna and chicken are available in foil packets with no juice. It is also easier to pack out the foil pouches than the cans.
Noodle water Anytime you cook pasta, you are left with noodle water. If possible, use this for something else later in the meal, such as hot chocolate. The chocolate will hide the pasta flavor, and you’ll get the benefit of the extra carbs in the water. This is much better than putting the water in a sump hole (see “Wastewater (#litres_trial_promo),”).


BURRITOS


Packed with protein and carbohydrates, burritos are another great energy meal. Repack the beans and salsa into water bottles before your trip, or use instant beans, so you aren’t lugging cans around. The cumin makes a huge difference in flavor; don’t forget to include it in your spice kit.
1 tablespoon margarine

/
onion, chopped
1 green bell pepper, chopped
3 (4-ounce) cans/packets chicken
2 (12-ounce) cans refried black beans
2 (12-ounce) cans salsa
1 teaspoon ground cumin
6 tortillas
Cheddar cheese, sliced, for topping
In a large frying pan over medium heat, melt the margarine and sauté the onion for 1 to 2 minutes. Add the green pepper and chicken, and continue to sauté, stirring frequently, until the onion is translucent, 3 to 5 minutes. Add the beans, salsa, and cumin, and cook over medium heat, stirring frequently, until hot. Divide the mixture among the 6 tortillas, sprinkle each with cheese, fold, and serve immediately.
Serves 6


PITTA PIZZAS


This meal takes a while if you have to cook one pizza at a time, but it’s lots of fun to make. This recipe makes 18 small pizzas.
3 tablespoons margarine
2 green bell peppers, chopped
1 onion, chopped Pepperoni stick, sliced
18 small whole-wheat pittas
1 (16-ounce) can tomato or pizza sauce
1 pound Cheddar cheese, sliced
In a large frying pan over medium heat, melt 1 tablespoon of margarine and sauté the green peppers, onion, and pepperoni slices until the onion is translucent, 3 to 5 minutes. Set aside in a bowl. Slice a 4-inch-long opening along the edge of each pitta. Fill each one with sauce, cheese, onion, and green pepper. Fry each pitta individually in margarine (added to the pan as needed) over medium heat until the pitta is browned and the insides are warmed.
Serves 6


QUESADILLAS


Quesadillas are a wonderful excuse to use up any leftover cheese and tortillas you’re carrying around. The longer your trip, the more you start fantasizing about fresh vegetables. Spinach is a good solution because it’s light and full of vitamins and fiber. Make sure it comes prewashed so you don’t use up water washing off sand and dirt.
3 tablespoons margarine
1 pound pre-washed spinach
2 green bell peppers
2 onions, chopped
1 cup chopped Cheddar cheese
6 tortillas
In a large frying pan over medium heat, melt 1 tablespoon of the margarine and sauté the spinach, green peppers, and onions until the spinach is wilted and the onions are browned, 5 to 10 minutes. Set aside in a bowl. Fill a tortilla with one-sixth of the spinach mixture, sprinkle with cheese, and fold in half. Reheat the frying pan and cook each quesadilla over medium heat until the cheese melts, adding margarine as needed. This can be a very sloppy procedure, but the meal is so delicious it’s worth the mess.
Serves 6


MACARONI AND CHEESE


Mac and cheese is a meal that I don’t think to fix at home, but after a long day on the trail, even something this simple tastes good. Must be all those carbs.
2 pounds elbow macaroni or rigatoni noodles
1 pound cheddar cheese, chopped (using various cheeses adds to the flavor)
4 tablespoons margarine
1 garlic clove, minced
Bring a large pot of water to a boil. Add the noodles, and cook over medium heat until tender, 5 to 10 minutes, depending on the type of noodle. When the noodles are tender, pour the water out (see “Noodle Water,” (#ulink_8365497f-ec3b-5682-9660-25039372eaf7)), leaving enough water in the pot to just barely cover the noodles. Add the cheese, margarine, garlic, salt and pepper to taste, and stir until the cheese melts. Serve immediately.
Serves 6
Variation: You can spice this meal up by stir-frying some veggies (broccoli, green peppers, etc.) in a separate pan with a little margarine until tender, and adding them in at the cheese-melting stage.


PESTO SAUCE


Make a batch of pesto before your trip and you’ll have a quick and easy meal for those long days when you’re too tired to cook.
2 cups fresh basil leaves

/
cup olive oil
1 teaspoon lemon juice
2 garlic cloves, minced

/
cup pine nuts
2 teaspoons red wine or balsamic vinegar
Add all the ingredients to a blender or food processor and grind until smooth. Store the pesto in a Tupperware container (tape it closed all the way around or you’ll find oil and basil all over your pack). Serve over your favorite pasta, fish, or chicken.
Makes 2
/
cups, to serve 6


CHICKEN FAJITAS


16 ounces refried beans
30 ounces canned/packet chicken, drained
3 tablespoons margarine
2 green bell peppers, sliced
2 onions, sliced
12 (10-inch) flour tortillas
16 ounces salsa Grated cheese (optional)
In a large frying pan, heat the refried beans over medium heat until warm, then set aside in a separate bowl. Drain the chicken (save the juice to add to your frying pan as needed). Add 1 tablespoon margarine to the frying pan over high heat. When the pan is hot, lightly scorch the peppers, onions, and chicken until brown but still tender. (For easier frying, cook only
/
to
/
of the filling at a time, storing the finished filling in a separate covered pot.) If desired, warm the tortillas in a large frying pan; fry 2 tortillas at a time over medium-high heat, adding a small amount of margarine to the pan as needed. Fill the tortillas with the beans and chicken mixture. Cover with salsa and grated cheese, if desired.
Serves 6


DHAAL-BHAT (SHERPA RICE)


Dhaal-bhat, or curried rice and lentils, is a staple for the people of the Himalayas. I grew to love this simple dish while trekking in Nepal.

/
cup lentils

/
cup barley
Salt
3 cups instant rice
1 onion, chopped
2 green bell peppers, chopped
2 apples, chopped
Curry powder
Ground cinnamon
Soak the lentils and barley for about 2 hours by putting them in a water bottle (you can do this earlier in the afternoon and they will be rehydrated by the time you get to camp). Add salt to a large pot of boiling water. Stir in rice, barley, and lentils. Reduce to a simmer, then add onion, green peppers, apples, and spices. Cover tightly and simmer for 30 minutes.
Serves 6


CURRIED CHICKEN WITH RICE


3 cups instant rice
Salt
1 onion, diced
1 teaspoon minced garlic
1 tablespoon margarine
30 ounces canned/foil pack chicken
2 apples, chopped

/
cup raisins
1 to 2 tablespoons curry powder
Boil 2
/
cups water, add rice, and boil for 1 minute with 1 tablespoon salt. Simmer, covered, until done. Drain excess water, if necessary. In a fry pan, sauté onion and garlic in 1 tablespoon margarine until tender. Add the chicken, apples, raisins, and curry and heat for a few minutes. Add chicken mixture to rice and serve.
Serves 6
OUTDOOR BAKING (#ulink_5db7dbea-4294-52df-af90-834e854c60f8)
Baking in the outdoors is an art that requires patience. In order to bake, you need to be able to provide heat on both the top and the bottom of your pan. There are a number of cooking pans and devices that enable you to do this. Another technique is to create a Dutch oven using a pot with a lid. You can do this on a fire (if building a fire is appropriate) or on a backpack stove: place coals from the fire, or build a twig fire, on top of the pot lid. (Lids designed with a rim to contain the fire make this much easier.) Hold your hand about 6 inches above the pot-lid coals. Your hand should feel hot but not burn. Once baking begins, gently remove the lid periodically using pot grips and check your progress, and then quickly replace the lid. You will have to continue to feed the coals to maintain heat.
FOOD EQUIVALENTS (#ulink_f5e01e53-2ee1-5b11-894d-bae6082e6557)
Here are some common menu items with information on how weight or volume converts to the number of servings:


MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENTS (#ulink_08c9afc0-a354-52df-8e03-00dafa0df713)




CHAPTER 4 (#ulink_8dd8ad7c-6a1b-5368-a856-8d98f75ecbab)
Hygiene and Water Purification (#ulink_8dd8ad7c-6a1b-5368-a856-8d98f75ecbab)
KEEPING CLEAN ON THE TRAIL (#ulink_96a22810-b342-5426-9650-848008dd9bf4)
Handwashing (#litres_trial_promo)
Personal Bathing (#litres_trial_promo)
WASHING CLOTHES (#litres_trial_promo)
WASHING DISHES, POTS, AND UTENSILS (#litres_trial_promo)
WOMEN’S HYGIENE ISSUES (#litres_trial_promo)
Tampons vs. Pads (#litres_trial_promo)
Disposing of Tampons, Pads, and Towelettes (#litres_trial_promo)
WATER PURIFICATION (#litres_trial_promo)
Boiling (#litres_trial_promo)
Chemical Purification (#litres_trial_promo)
Mixed-Oxidant Solutions (#litres_trial_promo)
Ultraviolet Light (#litres_trial_promo)
Filtration (#litres_trial_promo)
COLLECTING AND STORING WATER IN COLD WEATHER (#litres_trial_promo)
Preventing Your Water from Freezing (#litres_trial_promo)


Maintaining proper hygiene is a challenge in the wilderness. After hiking down a muddy trail all day you are just covered with gunk. Add sweat, sunscreen, and bug repellant and you can be a mess. While part of the joy of backpacking is returning to a more basic existence, giving up the luxuries of hot and cold running water, toilets, showers, and the like, sometimes we surrender too much to the dirt that surrounds us and that can lead to actual health problems. Dirty and open blisters or cuts and scrapes are a ripe environment for infection. Bacterial infections can spread through poor cleaning of cookware and poor personal hygiene before handling food. Get into the habit of using good cleaning practices for a safer and more enjoyable trip. It’s not just your cleanliness; someone else’s lack of good hygiene could cause you to become sick. (See below.)
KEEPING CLEAN ON THE TRAIL (#ulink_2ac371b4-aed3-5f32-9b28-babedceb8f11)
One of the most common health problems when backpacking is gastrointestinal illnesses like diarrhea, which are spread by fecal-to-oral transmission. Fecal-borne pathogens get into your system through one of several routes:

Direct contact with faeces (even using toilet paper leaves germs on your hands)
Indirect contact with hands that have contacted faeces (shaking hands, for example)
Contact with insects that have contacted faeces
Contact with contaminated drinking water

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